When it comes to cooking with acids, ingredients such as lime juice can be used to essentially "cook" the proteins in items like shrimp and fish, resulting in similar changes to those that happen when applying heat. On the molecular level, a protein in its native state is structured so as to balance the various attracting and repulsing charges between both its internal regions and the surrounding environment. Portions of proteins are nonpolar-flip ahead a few pages to the section on "When a Molecule Meets a Molecule" to read about polarity-while water is polar. Because of this, proteins normally contort and fold themselves up so that the polar regions of their structures are arranged in a stable shape. Adding an acid or base denatures a protein by knocking its charges out of balance. The ions from an acid or base are able to slip into the protein's structure and change the electrical charges, causing the protein to change its shape. For dishes like ceviche (citrus-marinated seafood), the acid from the lime or lemon juice literally causes a change on the molecular level akin to cooking. And this change doesn't just happen on the surface-given sufficient time, acidic and basic solutions will fully penetrate a food.

When it comes to food safety, adjusting the pH level of the environment can both destroy any existing bacteria or parasites and also prohibit their growth. Ceviche is a cla.s.sic example of this. Vibrio cholerae Vibrio cholerae-a common seafood-borne pathogen-rapidly dies in environments with a pH level below 4.5, even at room temperature. With sufficient lime juice, V. cholerae V. cholerae will not survive. Or consider cooked white rice. Left out at room temperature, it becomes a perfect breeding ground for will not survive. Or consider cooked white rice. Left out at room temperature, it becomes a perfect breeding ground for Bacillus cereus Bacillus cereus: it's moist, at an ideal temperature, and has plenty of nutrients for bacteria to munch away on. (Uncooked rice is dry, and since bacteria need moisture to reproduce, they remain dormant. See the FAT TOM variables from Foodborne Illness and Staying Safe Foodborne Illness and Staying Safe for more.) But drop the pH level of the rice by adding enough rice vinegar-down to about 4.0-and the rice falls well outside a hospitable range for bacteria to grow. This is why proper preparation of sushi rice is so critical in restaurants: failure to correctly adjust the pH level can result in sickening diners. for more.) But drop the pH level of the rice by adding enough rice vinegar-down to about 4.0-and the rice falls well outside a hospitable range for bacteria to grow. This is why proper preparation of sushi rice is so critical in restaurants: failure to correctly adjust the pH level can result in sickening diners.

NoteSpores for B. cereus B. cereus are highly prevalent in soil and water; they're essentially impossible to get rid of. They're heat-stable, too-you can't boil them away. Whoever joked about c.o.c.kroaches being the only thing to survive a nuclear blast clearly hadn't read up on these things. are highly prevalent in soil and water; they're essentially impossible to get rid of. They're heat-stable, too-you can't boil them away. Whoever joked about c.o.c.kroaches being the only thing to survive a nuclear blast clearly hadn't read up on these things.Scallop CevicheThis scallop ceviche is a simple dish to prepare, and surprisingly refreshing on a warm summer day. It's also a good example of how acids-in this case, the lime and lemon juices-can be used in cooking.[image]In a bowl, mix: - cup (130g) lime juice - cup (60g) lemon juice - 1 small (70g) red onion, sliced as thinly as possible - 2 tablespoons (20g or 1 bulb) shallot, thinly sliced - 2 tablespoons (18g) olive oil - 1 tablespoon (15g) ketchup - 1 clove (7g) garlic, chopped or run through a garlic press - 1 teaspoon (4g) balsamic vinegar Add and toss to coat: - 1 lb (500g) bay scallops, rinsed and patted dry Store in fridge, toss again after two hours, and store overnight to give sufficient time for acid to penetrate scallops. Add salt and pepper to taste.[image]Notes - Try slicing one of the scallops in half after two hours. You should see a white outer ring and a translucent center. The outer ring is the portion that has had time to react with the citric acid, changing color as the proteins denature (just as they would with heat applied). Likewise, after marinating for a day or two, a sliced scallop should show a cross-section that's entirely white.

- Keep in mind that the pH of the marinade is important! At least 15% of the dish should be lime or lemon juice, a.s.suming the remaining ingredients are not extremely basic. Lime juice is more acidic than lemon juice (pH of 2.02.35 versus 2.02.6).

- Try adding minor quant.i.ties of herbs like oregano to the marinade or adding cherry tomatoes and cilantro to the final dish (after marinating).

NoteWhat, you're worried that the scallops are still "raw" and full of bacteria? To quote from the literature: "In the face of an epidemic of cholera, consumption of ceviche prepared with lime juice would be one of the safest ways to avoid infection with [Vibrio] cholerae." (L. Mata, M. Vives, and G. Vicente (1994), "Extinction of Vibrio cholerae in acidic substrata: contaminated fish marinated with lime juice (ceviche)," Revista de Biologia Tropical 42(3): 472485.)Still, since some types of bacteria can withstand more extreme environments, if you really want to play it safe, avoid serving this to anyone in an at-risk group.Mozzarella CheeseMaking your own cheese is neither a time-saver nor a money-saver, but it's a great experiment to see how closely related two seemingly different things can be. Cheese is made from curds curds-coagulated casein proteins-in milk. The whey is separated out via an enzymatic reaction, allowing the curds to be cooked and then kneaded, stretched, and folded to create that characteristic structure found in string cheese.[image]NoteAmerican string cheese is really mozzarella cheese that's been formed into long, skinny logs. Other countries make string cheese using goat or sheep's milk, sometimes adding in c.u.min seeds and other spices, and often braid several thin strands together.You'll need to order a few chemicals to do this. (See the upcoming notes and the sidebar Buying Food Additives Buying Food Additives for how to do so.) In two small bowls or gla.s.ses, measure out and set aside: for how to do so.) In two small bowls or gla.s.ses, measure out and set aside: - teaspoon (1.4g) calcium chloride dissolved in 2 tablespoons distilled water - tablet rennet, dissolved in 4 tablespoons distilled water (adjust quant.i.ty per your rennet manufacturer's directions) In a stock pot, mix and slowly heat to 88F / 31C: - 1 gallon (4 liters) whole milk, but not but not ultra-pasteurized or h.o.m.ogenized ultra-pasteurized or h.o.m.ogenized - 1 teaspoon (12.3g) citric acid - teaspoon (0.7g) lipase powder NoteWhere it says "not h.o.m.ogenized," it really means not h.o.m.ogenized. (The milk can, and probably should, be pasteurized, though.) If you use h.o.m.ogenized milk, you'll end up with a squeaky mess that vaguely resembles cottage cheese but doesn't melt together. The h.o.m.ogenization process disrupts the protein structures such that they can no longer bind together.Once the liquid is at 88F / 31C, add the calcium chloride and rennet mixtures and continue to slowly slowly heat to 105F / 40.5C, stirring every few minutes. At this point, you should begin to see curds separating from whey. heat to 105F / 40.5C, stirring every few minutes. At this point, you should begin to see curds separating from whey.Once the liquid is at 105F / 40.5C, remove from heat, cover the pot, and wait 20 minutes. At this point, the curds should be fully separated from the whey; if not, wait a while longer.[image]Transfer the curds to a microwave-safe bowl using a slotted spoon, or strain out the whey and transfer it from your strainer. Squeeze as much of the whey out of the curd as possible, tipping the bowl to drain the liquid. Microwave on high for one minute. Squeeze more of the whey out. The cheese should now be sticky; if not, continue to microwave in 15-second increments until it is warm and sticky (but not too hot to handle).Add teaspoon flaked salt to the cheese and knead. Microwave for one more minute on high until the cheese is around 130F / 54.4C. Remove and stretch, working it just like playing with silly putty: stretch, fold in half, twist, and stretch again, over and over, until you've achieved a stringy texture.Notes - The addition of acid denatures proteins in the milk, helping curd formation. Citric acid is commonly used. For similar reasons, many cheeses use rennet-traditionally derived from calf stomach-because it has a number of enzymes that break down proteins in the milk.

- The lipase powder is not chemically chemically required, especially given that animal-based rennet contains lipase. Your rennet source might not contain it, however, and the lipase enzyme is responsible for the characteristic flavor of mozzarella because of the way it cleaves the fats in milk. For a lacto-vegetarian mozzarella cheese, use vegetable-based rennet and skip the lipase powder, but note that the cheese will not have the traditional flavor. For a source of lipase, try required, especially given that animal-based rennet contains lipase. Your rennet source might not contain it, however, and the lipase enzyme is responsible for the characteristic flavor of mozzarella because of the way it cleaves the fats in milk. For a lacto-vegetarian mozzarella cheese, use vegetable-based rennet and skip the lipase powder, but note that the cheese will not have the traditional flavor. For a source of lipase, try http://www.dairyconnection.com or or http://thecheesemaker.com/cultures.htm.[image]

- For a good writeup on making mozzarella following a more traditional, more authentic, and much more involved approach, see http://fiascofarm.com/dairy/mozzarella.htm.

Green OlivesIf you are lucky enough to have access to an olive tree during the fall, when the unripe fruit is available, try your hand at making green olives.Unlike the mature black fruit of the olive tree, olives in their green form can be soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide, a.k.a. caustic soda) to remove the bitter compound oleuropein that is present in the unripe flesh.Obtaining food-grade sodium hydroxide might require some searching online; http://www.lyedepot.com carries food-grade micro beads. Do not use industrial products such as Drano, because they contain other chemicals! Also, because lye is extremely corrosive, take great care not to come into direct contact with it. Use rubber gloves and eye protection, and consider finding an outdoor s.p.a.ce that is more forgiving of accidental spills than your kitchen. carries food-grade micro beads. Do not use industrial products such as Drano, because they contain other chemicals! Also, because lye is extremely corrosive, take great care not to come into direct contact with it. Use rubber gloves and eye protection, and consider finding an outdoor s.p.a.ce that is more forgiving of accidental spills than your kitchen.In a large plastic bucket or gla.s.s jar, place: - Green olives of a consistent size, with any of the fruit that is bruised or soft discarded - Room-temperature water (add enough to completely cover olives) Transfer the water to a second plastic bucket or gla.s.s jar, and measure how much water you used. (Adding it to the first container was just to determine the amount needed.) Add to the water: - 1 tablespoon of lye per quart of water for a 1.5% solution Stir carefully to combine, and gently pour over olives into the first container. Soak for one day.After a day, discard the lye/water solution and refresh with a new batch of water and lye. Soak for an additional day.After the second day, take an olive out and cut into it, exposing the pit. If there is any whiteness near the center, discard the lye/water solution again and refresh with a new batch. Repeat until the entire olive flesh is a consistent color.Once the olives are cured to the center, drain the liquid and soak in fresh water. A day later, replace the fresh water with salt water, using 1 tablespoon of salt per quart. Replace the salt water daily for three to five days. Transfer to a jar, fill with salt water, and store in the fridge.Notes - As with the scallops in ceviche, you can see the flesh of the olive change over time as the sodium hydroxide penetrates to the center of the olive.

- Try adding vinegar and spices (e.g., bay leaves, rosemary) to the final salt.w.a.ter brine to impart those flavors into the olives. For suggestions on further variations, including other curing techniques, see UC Davis's excellent writeup at http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8267.pdf.

- Be careful with the lye! No, really, I mean it. Pretend that it's oil at 400F / 200C. Also, avoid metal containers or utensils, because lye reacts with metal, especially aluminum. Wood, plastic, stainless steel, and gla.s.s are okay.

- If any of the olives float above the surface, you can place a gla.s.s or plate on top of the bowl to immerse them fully. (Floating olives will oxidize.) Alcohol A number of organic compounds that provide aromas in food are readily dissolved in ethanol but not in water. You will invariably encounter dishes where alcohol is used for its chemical properties, either as a medium to carry flavors or as a tool for making flavors in the food available in sufficient quant.i.ty for your olfactory system to notice.

NoteEthanol can react with carboxylic acids in acid-catalyzed conditions, forming compounds that then react with more ethanol to generate water and the ester compounds that help carry aromas up into the nasal cavity.

Alcohol is often added to sauces or stews to aid in releasing aromatic compounds "locked up" in the ingredients. Try adding red wine to a tomato sauce or dribbling a bit of Pernod (anise liqueur) on top of a piece of pan-seared cod served with roasted fennel and rice.

You can also make your own flavor-infused vodkas by adding diced fruit, berries, herbs, or other spices to straight vodka. And since your concoction doesn't have to be shelf-stable like commercial varieties, you can generate better-tasting infusions. Don't limit yourself to just vodkas, either; try adding mint and a small quant.i.ty of sugar syrup to bourbon whiskey and storing it in the freezer.

Does Alcohol "Burn Off" in Cooking?No, not entirely. Even though the boiling point of pure ethanol (C2H5OH) is lower than that of water at atmospheric pressure (173F / 78C), the intermolecular bonding between ethanol and other compounds in the food is strong enough that its boiling point varies based on the concentration of ethanol in the food and how the other chemicals in the food hold on to it.The table to the right shows the percentage of alcohol remaining after various cooking methods according to a paper published by researchers at the University of Idaho.

Cooking method % remaining Alcohol added to boiling liquid and removed from heat 85%.

Alcohol flamed 75%.

No heat, stored overnight 70%.

Baked, 25 minutes, alcohol not stirred into mixture 45%.

Baked/simmered, alcohol stirred into mixture: ...for 15 minutes 40%.

...for 30 minutes 35%.

...for 1 hour 25%.

...for 2 hours 10%.

Fat-Washing Alcohols: b.u.t.ter-Infused Rum, Bacon-Infused BourbonThe term "fat washing" comes from the process of using fat to "wash out" undesirable molecules, but it is more useful in the home kitchen (and in molecular mixology) as a way of infusing oil-soluble compounds into alcohol. If you use a non-neutral flavored fat-a fat that has other molecules mixed in-some of the flavorful molecules will bind with the alcohol molecules (it is a solvent, after all) and remain behind in the drink.Why do this? Because you can create infused alcohols with flavors that might not come out in traditional infusing. The flavors can either be native to the fat (b.u.t.ter, bacon) or fat-soluble compounds bloomed in the fat before fat washing.Create an infusion of 35% fat and 9597% alcohol. Try 2 teaspoons (10g) of melted b.u.t.ter with 1 cup (200g) of rum or 2 teaspoons (10g) of bacon fat (filtered!) with 1 cup (200g) of bourbon. Let rest at room temperature for 12+ hours. Longer times and higher temperatures will yield a stronger infusion, so you'll want to experiment.Try using an immersion blender to kick-start the infusion.After infusing, place infusion in freezer until fats have solidified, and then filter through a coffee filter or other ~20-micron filter (see the filtration section in Filtration Filtration in in Chapter7 Chapter7).[image]Unfiltered.[image]100 micron filter.[image]~1020 micron filter.Notes - Try this with blue cheese, nut b.u.t.ters, and other fats.

- A key step in refining alcohol is the removal of undesirable compounds. It's impossible to remove every last "bad" molecule, but the more that are removed, the better tasting the beverage will be. This is why "the good stuff" costs more: refiners are able to remove more of the off-tasting compounds by increasing the number of steps in processing or giving the alcohol longer to age, which allows for better yield of the chemical reactions that remove the compounds. Fat washing can be used as a DIY way to further refine an alcohol: the compounds will bind with some of the fat molecules, which can then be removed by simple filtration. Try using a neutral-flavored fat, such as lard, for refining without altering the flavor.

- Incidental advice if you ever find yourself writing a book involving alcoholic drinks: don't write after drinking your experiments.

Vanilla ExtractIn a small gla.s.s jar with a tight-fitting lid, put: - 1 vanilla bean, sliced open lengthwise and chopped into strips to fit jar - 1 oz (30g) vodka (use enough to cover vanilla bean) Screw lid on jar or place plastic wrap over top and store in a cool, dark place (e.g., pantry) for at least a few days. Give the extract at least several weeks to steep.Notes - The vanilla bean can be left over from some other recipe. If you cook with vanilla frequently, consider keeping the jar of vanilla constantly topped off. Whenever you use a vanilla bean, add it to the jar, removing an old one when s.p.a.ce requires it. And as you use the extract, occasionally top off the jar with a bit more vodka or other liquor such as rum.

- Play with other variations: instead of vodka, which is used for its high ethanol content and general lack of flavor, you can use other spirits such as rum, brandy, or a blend of these.

- The ethanol dissolves a number of compounds present in the vanilla bean, including the compound vanillin, which gives vanilla its characteristic flavor.

- Instead of vanilla beans, try using star anise, cloves, or cinnamon sticks. Or try varying both solvent and substance (e.g., orange rind with Grand Marnier).

- Flavored alcoholic drinks can be made with this same technique. Instead of a large quant.i.ty of the solute (e.g., vanilla bean) and a minor amount of solvent (e.g., vodka), place a small bit of the solute into a bottle of the solvent. For an example, search online for nocino, nocino, an Italian walnut liqueur made with an Italian walnut liqueur made with unripe unripe walnuts, aromatic spices, and ethanol. walnuts, aromatic spices, and ethanol.

Sage Rush: Gin, Sage, and Grapefruit JuiceThis is a simple c.o.c.ktail and a darn good one. And having a simple, darn-good c.o.c.ktail in your repertoire can be handy. It only takes knowing one good drink to impress that romantic potential.Put two or three sage leaves (fresh!) in a shaker and muddle with the back side of a spoon. Add 1 part gin and 1 part pink grapefruit juice-say, 2 oz (50 ml) of each-and add several ice cubes. Shake vigorously. Strain into a martini gla.s.s.Note - If you have fresh pink grapefruit, use that. Squeeze the juice from half a grapefruit and add gin to taste. You can muddle the sage leaf post-shaker directly in the gla.s.s as well.

When a Molecule Meets a Molecule...Alcohol isn't the only solvent in the kitchen. The same chemical interactions that give alcohol its magic apply to oil and water, which is why recipes call for steps such as toasting caraway seeds in oil: the oil captures the molecules responsible for the characteristic nutty flavors developed and released by heating the seeds.But how how does a solvent work? What happens when one molecule b.u.mps into another molecule? Will they form a bond (called an does a solvent work? What happens when one molecule b.u.mps into another molecule? Will they form a bond (called an intermolecular bond intermolecular bond) or repel each other? It depends on a number of forces that stem from differences in the electrical charges and charge distributions of the two molecules.Of the four types of bonds defined in chemistry, two are of culinary interest: polar and nonpolar.A molecule that has an uneven electrical field around it or that has an uneven arrangement of electrons is polar polar. The simplest arrangement, where two sides of a molecule have opposite electrical charges, is called a dipole dipole. Water is polar because the two hydrogen atoms attach themselves to the oxygen atom such that the molecule as a whole has a negatively charged side. When two polar molecules b.u.mp into each other, a strong bond forms between the first molecule's positive side and the second molecule's negative side, just like when two magnets are lined up. On the atomic level, the side of the first molecule that has a negative charge is balancing out the side of the second molecule that has a positive charge.[image]A water molecule is polar because the electrostatic field around the molecule is asymmetric, due to the oxygen atom being more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms and the resulting differences in how the two hydrogen atoms share their electrons with the oxygen atom. (Electron sharing is another type of bond, a covalent bond.)A molecule that has a spherically symmetric electrostatic field-that is, there is no dipole, and the molecule doesn't have a "side" that has a different electrical charge-is nonpolar nonpolar. Oil is nonpolar because of the shape in which the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms arrange themselves.In most cases, when a polar molecule b.u.mps into a nonpolar molecule, the polar molecule is unlikely to find an electron to balance out its electrical field. It's a bit like trying to stick a magnet to a piece of wood: the magnet and wood aren't actively repelled by each other, but they're also not actually attracted. It's the same for polar-nonpolar interaction: the molecules might bounce into each other, but they won't stick and will end up drifting off and continuing to bounce around into other molecules.This is why oil and water do not mix. The water molecules are polar and form strong intermolecular bonds with other polar molecules, which are able to balance out their electrical charges. At an atomic level, the oil doesn't provide a sufficiently strong bonding opportunity for the negatively charged side of the water molecule.Water and sugar (sucrose), however, get along fine. Sucrose is also polar, so the electrical fields of the two molecules are able to line up to some degree. The strength of the intermolecular bond depends on how well the two different compounds line up, which is why some things dissolve together well while others only dissolve together to a certain point.

Extracts for drinks Bitters are to bartenders what extracts and spices are to chefs: they provide flavor with minimal impact on texture, volume, or other variables. Bitters Bitters refers to any extract that includes a bittering agent, such as gentian, quinine, or citrus rind. Angostura bitters is the "generic" bitter-one of the few to have survived through the Prohibition era-and is what most people think of when a recipe calls for bitters. Campari is also a bitter, although not commonly described this way. Bitters come in a range of flavors: from the complex and spicy (clove, anise, cinnamon) to the bright and clean (orange, grapefruit, mint). refers to any extract that includes a bittering agent, such as gentian, quinine, or citrus rind. Angostura bitters is the "generic" bitter-one of the few to have survived through the Prohibition era-and is what most people think of when a recipe calls for bitters. Campari is also a bitter, although not commonly described this way. Bitters come in a range of flavors: from the complex and spicy (clove, anise, cinnamon) to the bright and clean (orange, grapefruit, mint).

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This collection of bitters shows just a small selection of the flavors available.

Bitters can be used as flavorings in things besides alcoholic drinks. Try a dash of bitters in soda water, along with a slice of lime. Since they are a subset of extracts, you can use them in any place where a bitter extract would work. You can balance out bitterness with the addition of sugar, just as is done in an old-fashioned c.o.c.ktail. Bitters as an accent flavor in a chocolate truffle? As part of a dressing? Try it!

Bitters recipes can be quite complicated, requiring exotic ingredients and involving dozens of steps taking upward of a month. If you want to try your hand at one of the more involved recipes, try the one that follows here. For additional recipes, pick up Gary Regan's book, The Joy of Mixology The Joy of Mixology (Clarkson Potter) (Clarkson Potter), from which the recipe on the following page is adapted with permission. His recipe uses both ethanol and water as solvents. The ethanol at the beginning dissolves one set of organic compounds present in the spices. Later, the water dissolves a different set. Notice that the ethanol that contains the first set of alcohol-solvent organic compounds is never subjected to heat! from which the recipe on the following page is adapted with permission. His recipe uses both ethanol and water as solvents. The ethanol at the beginning dissolves one set of organic compounds present in the spices. Later, the water dissolves a different set. Notice that the ethanol that contains the first set of alcohol-solvent organic compounds is never subjected to heat!

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Regan's Orange Bitters No. 5Combine in a large jar: - 2 cups (450g) grain alcohol such as Everclear or vodka - cup (160g) water - 8 oz (250g) dried orange peel - teaspoon (3g) caraway seeds - 1 teaspoon (2g) qua.s.sia chips - 1 teaspoon (2g) cardamom seeds - teaspoon (0.75g) cinchona bark, powdered - 1 teaspoon (0.50g) coriander seeds - teaspoon (0.25g) gentian Make sure that the liquid covers the dry ingredients, adding more grain alcohol if necessary, and screw on the lid. Shake vigorously to mix, about 20 seconds, once a day for two weeks.After two weeks, remove the solids, boil them in water, and then add them to the alcohol again. You can separate the liquid from the solids by straining it with a cheesecloth or fine sieve, returning the liquid to the jar and placing the solids into a saucepan. Muddle the solids with a pestle so that the seeds are broken open. In the saucepan with the solids, add: - 3 cups (800g) water cups (800g) water Bring to a boil and then simmer with lid on for 10 minutes. Turn off heat and allow to return to room temperature for about an hour. Once cool, recombine the solids and water with the alcoholic liquid in the jar.Shake vigorously for 30 seconds once a day for at least a week. Then strain out the solids and discard them.[image]Next, we'll make a sugar syrup to add to the liquid. In an empty saucepan, bring to medium heat: - 1 cup (200g) sugar Once the sugar starts to melt, stir constantly until the sugar caramelizes to a dark brown color.Allow to cool for a few minutes. Add the liquid to the sugar, stirring it until entirely dissolved. Transfer liquid to jar and let rest for a week.After a week, remove any solids that are floating and decant the clear liquid into another container, leaving behind the sediment.You should have about 12 fluid ounces (350 ml) of liquid at this point. Add 6 ounces (180 ml) of water, shake thoroughly, and transfer to a bitters bottle (amber or other opaque bottle to prevent light from breaking down some of the organic compounds).Notes - Some of the harder-to-find ingredients can be procured from http://www.kal.u.s.tyans.com and and http://www.starwest-botanicals.com.

- When using bitters, a "dash" is a solid pour from a bottle with a dash cap: bottle right-side up, rotate 180 degrees, and back. It's not a side trickle. Your "dashes" will be larger as the bottle gets emptier due to the change in air volume in the bottle, but for practical purposes at home, it's probably not worth breaking out the milligram scale. (But if you do, a quick check with my scale shows roughly 6 dashes to the gram.) - A number of online sites exist for ordering bitters, in case you get taken with them but don't want to spend the time making them. Try searching http://www.kegworks.com for the word "bitters" or search the Internet for "Fee Brothers" and "Bitter Truth," two makers of specialized bitters. for the word "bitters" or search the Internet for "Fee Brothers" and "Bitter Truth," two makers of specialized bitters.

Linda Anctil on InspirationLinda Anctil is a private chef in Connecticut who blogs about her work at http://www.playingwithfireandwater.com.[image]How do you think about the visual experience of food?I approach food as a designer, but because it is food, it also has to function. Ultimately, it has to taste good. Sometimes, I'm inspired by an ingredient, a season, a shape, or a color, but inspiration can come from anywhere. I always try to include an element of surprise, whether it's visual or stimulating to other senses.Sometimes, I'm inspired by a serving piece. I found this great votive holder with a cup suspended inside of another cup with an empty chamber underneath. I've served brandies and bourbons in it and, actually, one with smoked cedar. I infused the flavor into a bourbon, then filled the bottom empty chamber with cedar smoke. The person drinking it will lift the gla.s.s to take a sip, and the smoke just pours out from it. It heightens the whole experience because you're bringing the sense of smell into it.[image]Votive holder on table with bourbon and cedar smoke.[image]Votive holder being picked up with smoke wisps coming out.I inverted that same votive candle holder in another post. I put clam chowder in it with small potatoes that were hollowed out and filled with bacon and clams, all the flavors you expect to find in clam chowder. It almost looked like the potatoes were floating in the broth. It should be playful. It should be whimsical as well as delicious.Nature is a constant source of inspiration to me. I went out to the garden to pick some sage last winter, and I had the scent of conifers from my Christmas tree on my gloves. The smells became intermingled in my mind and, suddenly, conifers became something I could use as an herb. It inspired a whole series of dishes that I put together using the flavor of conifer. I did one where I layered lots of different textures and flavors together, culminating with my video "The Winter Garden" (at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2bYvapNDIJw). I think it was probably my most abstract or conceptual dish that I've put together, but it really captured that whole feeling of being outside on that one day with the ice and the snow and the frost and the smell of conifers. I was the only one who ate the dish in the end. I enjoyed it a lot. It was a very personal expression to me.[image]Do you have any suggestions about how to think about presenting food?Keep an open mind. Pick up a piece of fruit and imagine that you were an alien on this planet who had never seen it before, and experience it through that lens. How does it look to you? What does it smell like? What does it taste like? What can you do with it? Think outside of the box and enjoy the journey!It sounds like it's really about personal expression.It absolutely is. You can look at any artist or chef's food, and you'll realize it's a personal expression of who they are. It's telling a story about that person's experiences. That's a wonderful aspect of cooking.PHOTOS OF LINDA ANCTIL, VOTIVE HOLDERS, AND WINTER GARDEN PROJECT USED BY PERMISSION OF LINDA ANCTIL

Modern Industrial Chemicals Over the past century, the food industry has developed or repurposed a number of chemicals to address the issues of scaling created when producing food in large quant.i.ties. Preventing illness, maintaining freshness, controlling costs, and meeting changing consumer demands have all presented challenges. Producing larger quant.i.ties of food increases the time between harvest and consumption, increasing the chances of spoilage and the amount of time foodborne pathogens have to develop. And aggregating ingredients from a larger number of producers increases the impact that a single contaminated item can have.

Hard on the heels of World War II, when advances in food science had been applied to address these problems in the military's meal rations ("an army travels on its stomach"), the food industry found a new market in the American consumer. Convenience foods and prepared meals burst onto the scene at the same time that freezers went into ma.s.s production and television sets became the "must have" item for the American family. Instant food and instant entertainment have been married ever since.

The same family of chemicals that enabled the creation of the TV dinner (mmm, Kraft Macaroni & Cheese) also allowed for a new set of dishes to be created by haute cuisine haute cuisine chefs, sometimes called chefs, sometimes called molecular gastronomy molecular gastronomy or or modernist cuisine modernist cuisine (we'll use the latter term). These chefs use industrial chemicals to create entirely different ways of conveying flavors and exciting the senses. When done well, the dishes are not about additives at all, but about the perceptions and emotions that all good meals strive to evoke. No one is suggesting that vegetables and whole foods should be replaced with white powders. (we'll use the latter term). These chefs use industrial chemicals to create entirely different ways of conveying flavors and exciting the senses. When done well, the dishes are not about additives at all, but about the perceptions and emotions that all good meals strive to evoke. No one is suggesting that vegetables and whole foods should be replaced with white powders.

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Molecular GastronomyWhat is molecular gastronomy? It depends on whom you ask. To the purists, it's the use of scientific investigative techniques to understand the chemical and physical changes that occur during cooking, a pure science. Under this definition, anything done in the kitchen is merely an application of general physical and chemical principles ("molecular cooking"). To others, molecular gastronomy is the use of unusual processes and chemicals to create sometimes alien experimental dishes that have a reputation for being sensory gimmicks. And somewhere in the middle are a large number of modern foodies: it's the stuff that Marcel did on the reality TV show Top Chef Top Chef.Regardless of the exact definition, one thing is clear: modern techniques for manipulating food can expand the toolbox from which a talented chef can create new experiences, whether subtle or over-the-top. As with all art, some experiments turn out great, stirring an emotional response and creating (hopefully positive) feelings, while others fail and are politely ignored (or not).[image][image]Either way, the diner must be a willing partic.i.p.ant in these types of experiences. If you're l.u.s.ting after a cla.s.sic cheeseburger, you'd probably be unhappy being served a "deconstructed" burger, never mind how well executed: beef tartar on one corner of the plate, micro-green salad on the opposite corner, a smear of tomato reduction between the two, and toasted sesame bread on the side. As with most such things, frame of mind, expectations, and being open to the experience are key.ACHEWOOD COMIC STRIP USED BY PERMISSION OF CHRIS ONSTAD The demand for innovative foods at the high end of the culinary world should not be surprising. Luxury restaurants now have to compete with the enthusiastic hobbyist chef, who has been able to better approximate traditional restaurant fare as the quality of consumer gear and produce has improved. The same technological advances that have enabled the production of convenience foods have also enabled the agro-industrial food complex to deliver an ever-widening-sometimes maddeningly so-variety of food, and also to make those foods available for a longer window of time each year.

Turning to food additives for new dishes is a logical progression in the process of creating something new. Sometimes, the results are amazing; other times, they fall flat. Compare the culinary iconoclasts to the fashions that show up on the Paris runways: while it might not be "everyday" wear or cuisine, the better concepts and ideas that start out at the high end eventually make their way into the clothing shops and onto the general restaurant scene.

Many of the techniques that rely on food additives originated in Europe. Chef Ferran Adria's restaurant elBulli, in Spain, is considered by many to be the originator of much of modern haute cuisine. Chef Heston Blumenthal's restaurant The Fat Duck, in the UK, has also established an international reputation for pushing the boundaries of food.

NoteBy some accounts, one had a better chance of getting into Harvard than getting a reservation at elBulli.

Should you have the opportunity and inclination to dine at them, both Alinea (Chef Grant Achatz's restaurant in Chicago) and wd-50 (Chef Wylie Dufresne's restaurant in New York City) are highly regarded and happen to use food additives in creating some of their dining experiences.

Fortunately, you do not need to eat at these places to understand what this style of cooking offers. With willingness and a certain amount of determination, you can duplicate, or at least roughly approximate, a number of the techniques in use at these restaurants in your own home.

Be forewarned: while the techniques are generally not difficult, the time and costs involved and the resulting product might not leave you clamoring to use these methods in your daily routine; in fact, you might even think they should be cla.s.sified as a form of culinary terrorism. Still, even if the use of some of these chemicals remains limited to the "fun party trick" category because of their novelty, isn't a part of geeking out understanding how things work? Before jumping into the techniques, however, let's take a slight detour to examine a chemical taxonomy and the chemistry of colloids to help explain the science behind the techniques.

E Numbers: The Dewey Decimal System of Food Additives It's easy enough to write eggplant on the grocery list, but how does one go about writing up a grocery list for food additives? The Codex Alimentarius Commission Codex Alimentarius Commission-established by the United Nations and the World Health Organization-has created a taxonomy of food additives called "E numbers." Like the Dewey Decimal cla.s.sification system, it establishes a hierarchical tree: a unique E number is a.s.signed for each chemical compound, grouped by functional categories, with the numbering of chemicals determined by each chemical's primary usage.

E100E199: Coloring agents (i.e., food coloring, like those found in the grocery store) E120: Cochineal or carminic acid ("red 4," in common use) E200E299: Preservatives E251: Sodium nitrate (used in curing items like sausages) E290: Carbon dioxide E300E399: Antioxidants, acidity regulators E300: As...o...b..c acid (vitamin C) E322: Lecithin (emulsifier, typically from soy) E330: Citric acid (in lemons, limes, etc.) E327: Calcium lactate E400E499: Thickeners, emulsifiers, and stabilizers E401: Sodium alginate E406: Agar E441: Gelatin E461: Methylcellulose E500E599: Acidity regulators, anti-caking agents E500: Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) E509: Calcium chloride E524: Sodium hydroxide (lye) E600E699: Flavor enhancers E621: Monosodium glutamate (MSG) E700E799: Antibiotics E900E999: Miscellaneous E941: Nitrogen (used in food storage) E953: Isomalt (also known as Isomalt.i.tol) E1000E1999: Additional chemicals E1510: Ethanol (alcohol) An abbreviated table of E numbers including common food additives.

Not everything has an E number; for example, neither common salt (sodium chloride) nor transglutaminase (discussed later in this chapter) is currently included. Which additive to use for a particular effect, such as gelling, depends upon the properties of the food with which you're working and your goals. Most food additives used in modernist cuisine come from the E400E499 range, which consists of the following: - Thickeners (e.g., cornstarch, methylcellulose, agar, carrageenan) - Provide structure to items such as gels (Jell-O), traditional French dishes (aspics and terrines), and confections (gummy candies). Food preparers also use them to prevent both water and sugar crystallization in foods such as ice creams, because thickeners inhibit the development of molecular lattices.

- Emulsifiers (e.g., lecithin and glycerin) - Prevent two liquids from separating, as with oil and water in mayonnaise. The food industry uses lecithin in chocolate for similar reasons, to prevent the cocoa solids and fats from separating and to increase the viscosity of the melted chocolate during manufacturing.

- Stabilizers (e.g., guar and xanthan gums) - Lend a smooth "mouth-feel" to a liquid and can also act as emulsifiers by preventing aggregates from separating. Think of how oregano stays suspended in a commercial salad dressing, instead of precipitating out and settling to the bottom.

You will also see compounds from the E300E399 and E500E599 ranges used, but usually as secondary additives that help the E400E499 compounds function. A number of the E400E499 additives require either certain pH ranges or secondary compounds to react with, such as calcium when working with sodium alginate.

Some additives work in a broad range of pHs and temperatures but have other properties that may prohibit their use, depending upon the recipe. For example, while agar is a strong gelling agent, in some gels it also exhibits syneresis syneresis (when a gel expels a portion of its liquid-think of the liquid whey that separates out in some yogurts). Carrageenan does not undergo syneresis but cannot handle an environment as acidic as agar can. For example, if you attempt to use carrageenan to gel lime juice, which has a pH between 2.0 and 2.35, you will also need to add an acidity regulator to raise the pH. (when a gel expels a portion of its liquid-think of the liquid whey that separates out in some yogurts). Carrageenan does not undergo syneresis but cannot handle an environment as acidic as agar can. For example, if you attempt to use carrageenan to gel lime juice, which has a pH between 2.0 and 2.35, you will also need to add an acidity regulator to raise the pH.

Buying Food AdditivesAs you've probably guessed by now, your local grocery store is unlikely to stock many of the chemicals needed for these techniques. Sourcing food-grade versions will undoubtedly get easier over time, but expect to place some Internet orders before attempting the recipes in the rest of this chapter.First, a warning: you should not use "technical grade" or other non-food-grade substances you should not use "technical grade" or other non-food-grade substances. While technical-grade powders might be 99.9% pure, there are no guarantees as to what substances comprise the remaining portion. Who knows what carcinogens might be hanging out in that remaining 0.1%!The following sites can supply most of the food additives used in this chapter in food-grade qualities: - Check here first, because I will maintain this list with current information: http://www.cookingforgeeks.com/book/additives/.

- If you're in the U.S., http://www.shopchefrubber.com, http://www.lepicerie.com, and http://www.le-sanctuaire.com are all good starting points. are all good starting points.

- In Europe? Look at http://www.cuisine-innovation.fr, http://www.bienmanger.com, and http://www.creamsupplies.co.uk.

Commercial food preparers have to balance additional variables in their recipes. In the lime gel example, if the pH is raised too much, the food becomes hospitable to bacterial activity, depending on other parameters in the food (e.g., water availability). Balancing all of this can require multiple chemicals, which is why prepared foods can have quite a number of chemicals on their ingredient labels!

Colloids One of the more common uses of industrial chemicals in food is to form colloids. A colloid is any mixture of two substances-gas, liquid, or solid-where one is uniformly dispersed in the other, but they are not actually dissolved together. That is, the two compounds in the mixture don't form chemical bonds, but the overall structure appears uniform to the naked eye.

Common colloids in the kitchen are whole milk and chocolate. In milk, solid particles of fat are dispersed throughout a water-based solution. In chocolate, particles of cocoa solids are dispersed throughout a solid medium of cocoa fat and other ingredients.

The following table shows the different combinations of particles and media, along with examples of foods for each colloid type. The medium of a colloid is called the continuous phase continuous phase (it's the watery liquid in milk); the particles are known as the (it's the watery liquid in milk); the particles are known as the dispersed phase dispersed phase (for milk, the fat droplets). (for milk, the fat droplets).

Gas particles Liquid particles Solid particles Gas medium (N/A: gas molecules don't have a collective structure, so gas/gas combinations either mix to create a solution or separate out due to gravity) Liquid aerosols - Mist sprays Solid aerosols - Smoke (convertible to a solid-in-liquid colloid via liquid smoke) - Aerosolized chocolate Liquid medium Foams - Whipped cream Emulsions - Milk - Mayonnaise Sols and suspensions - Commercial salad dressings Solid medium Solid foams - Meringue cookies - Souffles Gel - Gelatin - Jell-O Solid sols - Chocolate Some of these colloid types might remind you of various dishes served at more experimental restaurants.

One of the surprises of this table is the relatively broad swath of techniques that it captures. Foams, spherifications, and gelled foods are all colloids. Even some of the more recent novel dishes are colloids from the gas medium category. Chef Grant Achatz (Alinea, in Chicago) has used solid aerosols by infusing a pillow with smoke and then placing the dish on top of the pillow, forcing the air containing the aerosol to leave the pillow and diffuse into the diner's environment.

NoteChef Achatz uses smoke-infused "pillows" to present a pleasant olfactory experience while avoiding the taste sensation for items such as mace and lavender.

Other luxury restaurants have created courses that involve liquid aerosols (by spraying a perfume), and one company (Le Whif) is working on a kitchen gadget that creates solid aerosols from foods such as chocolates.

Some food additives can be used in more than one type of colloid. For example, guar gum can act as an emulsifier (by preventing droplets of oil from coalescing) and as a stabilizer (by preventing solids from settling). Methylcellulose is both a gelling agent and an emulsifier. Don't think of food additives as directly mapping onto the colloids they create, but it's a handy framework for thinking about the types of effects you can achieve.

Making Gels: Starches, Carrageenan, Agar, and Sodium Alginate The food industry uses gels to thicken liquids, to emulsify sauces, to modify texture ("improve mouth-feel," as they say), and to prevent crystal formation in products such as candies (sugar crystals) and ice cream (ice crystals and sugar crystals). Gels are also found in traditional home cooking: both gelatin (see the section on filtration in Chapter7 Chapter7) and pectin (see the sidebar Make Your Own Pectin Make Your Own Pectin in in Chapter4 Chapter4) are used in many dishes to improve mouth-feel, and they also help preserve items such as jams.

From the perspective of modernist cuisine, thickeners and gels are used primarily to create dishes in which foods that are typically liquid are converted into something that is thick enough to hold its shape (this is what pectin does in jam), or even completely solid.

Gels can also be formed "around" liquids to create a gelatinous surface in a technique known as spherification spherification, originally discovered by Unilever in the 1950s and brought to the modernist cuisine movement by Chef Ferran Adria of elBulli. For our purposes, gels in foods can be cla.s.sified into two general types: soft gels and brittle gels (true gels).

You can think of a soft gel soft gel as a thicker version of the original liquid: it has increased viscosity (it's "thicker"), but it retains its ability to flow. Soft gels can exhibit a phenomenon termed as a thicker version of the original liquid: it has increased viscosity (it's "thicker"), but it retains its ability to flow. Soft gels can exhibit a phenomenon termed shear thinning shear thinning, which is when a substance holds its shape but will flow and change shape when pressure is applied. Substances like ketchup and toothpaste exhibit shear thinning: squeeze the bottle or tube, and it flows easily, but let go, and it holds its shape.

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Iota carrageenan (left, 2% concentration) creates a flexible brittle gel, while kappa carrageenan (right, 2% concentration) creates a firm brittle gel. These two samples are resting on top of a narrow bar.

While a soft gel can be described as a "thicker" version of the original liquid, a brittle gel brittle gel can be thought of as a solid. Brittle gels-foods like cooked egg whites and Jell-O-have a tightly interconnected lattice that prevents them from flowing at all. With sufficient quant.i.ties of the gelling agent, this type can form a block or sheet that you can pick up, slice into blocks or strips, and stack as a component in a dish, and it has a "memory" of its cast shape, meaning that it will revert to that shape when no other forces are in play. can be thought of as a solid. Brittle gels-foods like cooked egg whites and Jell-O-have a tightly interconnected lattice that prevents them from flowing at all. With sufficient quant.i.ties of the gelling agent, this type can form a block or sheet that you can pick up, slice into blocks or strips, and stack as a component in a dish, and it has a "memory" of its cast shape, meaning that it will revert to that shape when no other forces are in play.

In the consumer kitchen, cornstarch is the standard traditional gelling agent. In industrial cooking, carrageenan is commonly used in gelling applications. (Try finding cream cheese that doesn't have carrageenan in it.) Iota carrageenan is used when a thickening agent is needed, while kappa carrageenan and agar yield firm, brittle gels. While the gelling agents used to create flexible and rigid gels are generally different, you can create a flexible gel with a gelling agent typically used in rigid, brittle applications by carefully controlling the quant.i.ty of gelling agent used.

Making gels: Starches Starches are used as thickeners in everything from simple roux to pie filling. They're easy, plentiful, and exist in almost all of the world's cuisines: cornstarch, wheat flour, tapioca starch, and potato "flour" (not actually a flour) being the most common. While there are differences among these starches-size of the starch granules, length of the molecular structure, and variations on the crystalline structure-they all act essentially the same. Expose to water, heat up, then cool down, and they thicken up.

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Gelatinization temperature of common starches.

Starch is composed of repeating units of amylopectin and amylose that form crystalline structures. The gelatinization temperature-the temperature at which these crystalline structures melt and then absorb water and swell-can vary, depending upon the ratio of amylopectin and amylose groups. We'll examine cornstarch here, but as you play with the others, keep in mind that the gelatinization temperature can vary.

- Instructions for use.To use cornstarch (called "corn flour" in the UK) to make a gel, mix it with a small amount of cold liquid such as water to create a slurry. Adding cornstarch directly to a hot liquid will result in clumps. Add the slurry to the desired dish and bring to a simmer.

- Uses.Cornstarch is used as a thickener and has about twice the thickening ability of flour. When a recipe calls for a teaspoon of flour, use half a teaspoon of cornstarch. Cornstarch is gluten-free, making it a good thickening subst.i.tute for those with gluten allergies.(Flour isn't as good a thickener because it contains other stuff in addition to starch, such as gluten, fat, fiber, and minerals.) - Origin and chemistry.Derived from corn (shocker, I know). Like other starches used in cooking (e.g., potato, tapioca, wheat), cornstarch is a carbohydrate composed of repeating units of amylopectin and amylose that form crystalline structures. On heating, these structures swell up and break down. Upon cooling, the leached amylose molecules can link together to create a 3D mesh, trapping other molecules into the network. For more on the chemistry of starches, see http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hysta.html.

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Technical notes Gelatinization temperature 203F / 95C; maximum thickness at 212F / 100C.

Gel type Thixotropic. (This means it becomes less viscous when pressure is applied. Think ketchup: it holds its shape, but flows under pressure.) Syneresis ("weeping") Extensive if frozen and then thawed.