59g water 0.8%.

2g salt 2%.

6g salt

(no sugar) 2%.

6g sugar

The numbers in the first column are "baker's percentages," which normalize the quant.i.ties to the quant.i.ty of flour by weight; the second column gives the gram weights for one pie's worth of dough.Just comparing these two recipes, you can see that the ratio of flour to fats ranges from 1:0.71 to 1:0.76, and that a higher percentage of water is called for in the Joy of Cooking Joy of Cooking version. version.However, b.u.t.ter isn't the same thing as shortening; b.u.t.ter is about 1517% water, whereas shortening is only fat. With this in mind, look at the recipes again: the Martha Stewart version has 76g of b.u.t.ter (per 100g of flour), for about 62g of fat; the pie dough with shortening has 60g of fat per 100g of flour. The quant.i.ty of water is also roughly equal between the two once the water present in the b.u.t.ter is factored in.You won't always find the ratios of ingredients between different recipes to be so close, but comparing recipes is a great way to learn more about cooking and a good way to determine which recipe to use when trying something new.NoteThere are two broad types of pie doughs: flaky and mealy. Working the fat into the flour until it is pea sized and using a bit more water will result in a flakier dough well suited to prebaked pie sh.e.l.ls; working it until it has a cornmeal-like texture will result in a more water-resistant, mealy, crumbly dough, which makes it better suited for uses where it is filled with ingredients when baked.Simple Pie DoughMeasure and combine all the ingredients for either the Joy of Cooking Joy of Cooking or the Martha Stewart recipe into a mixing bowl or the bowl of a food processor, cutting the b.u.t.ter into small cubes ( / 1 cm). You should preferably use pastry flour, but AP flour is okay. Chill in the freezer for 15 to 30 minutes. Chilling the ingredients prevents the b.u.t.ter from melting, which would allow the water in the b.u.t.ter to interact with the gluten in the flour, resulting in a less flaky, more bread-like dough. or the Martha Stewart recipe into a mixing bowl or the bowl of a food processor, cutting the b.u.t.ter into small cubes ( / 1 cm). You should preferably use pastry flour, but AP flour is okay. Chill in the freezer for 15 to 30 minutes. Chilling the ingredients prevents the b.u.t.ter from melting, which would allow the water in the b.u.t.ter to interact with the gluten in the flour, resulting in a less flaky, more bread-like dough.Pulse the ingredients in a food processor in one-to two-second bursts. Continue pulsing the dough until the ingredients are combined into a coa.r.s.e sand-like or small pebble-like consistency. If you do not have a food processor, use a pastry blender, a couple of knives, or your fingers to crumble the fats into the flour. Make sure if you use your hands not to let the temperature of the dough rise much above room temperature.Once the dough is at a coa.r.s.e sand- or pebble-like consistency, dump the dough out onto a floured cutting board and press it into a round disc. Using a rolling pin, roll the dough out into a sheet, then fold it over on itself and roll it out again, repeating until the dough has been compressed and has enough structure that it can be transferred to a pie tin.[image]Prebaked Pie Sh.e.l.lSome pies, such as lemon meringue pie (see Lemon Meringue Pie Lemon Meringue Pie in in Chapter6 Chapter6), call for the pie sh.e.l.l to be prebaked. To prebake a pie sh.e.l.l (also called blind baking blind baking), roll out the dough and transfer it to your pie tin or mold. You'll need to bake the pie with pie weights (no need to be fancy-beans or rice work perfectly); otherwise, the pie dough will slide down the edges and lose its shape. Once it's baked enough to hold its shape, remove the pie weights so that the pie sh.e.l.l has a chance to crisp up and brown.Set oven to 425F / 220C. Bake pie sh.e.l.l with pie weights for 15 minutes (use parchment paper to separate the pie weights from the dough, so that you can pick up the paper and remove the weights). Remove pie weights and bake for another 10 to 15 minutes, until sh.e.l.l is golden brown.NoteI hate hate the taste of uncooked flour; it burns the back of the mouth. If you're not sure whether your pie dough is done, err on the side of leaving it in longer. the taste of uncooked flour; it burns the back of the mouth. If you're not sure whether your pie dough is done, err on the side of leaving it in longer.[image]When prebaking-also called "blind baking"-a pie sh.e.l.l, make sure to fill the sh.e.l.l with weights. Otherwise, the sides will collapse. Line the pie sh.e.l.l with a piece of parchment paper or foil and fill it with dried beans or rice.Martin Lersch on Chemistry in the Kitchen[image]PHOTO USED BY PERMISSION OF MARTIN LERSCHMartin Lersch blogs about food and molecular gastronomy at http://blog.khymos.org, which includes the excellent collection of recipes, "Texture: A hydrocolloid recipe collection," which demonstrates many uses of food additives. (We'll cover food additives and molecular gastronomy in Chapter6 Chapter6.)I see from your online bio that you have a PhD in organometallic chemistry. How did you get interested in chemistry in cooking?My whole food interest is in no way related to my studies or my work, apart from chemistry. It was when I was a student at the University of Oslo, almost 10 years ago, that I found On Food and Cooking On Food and Cooking by Harold McGee in the faculty library. It was very interesting. by Harold McGee in the faculty library. It was very interesting.So I started looking for more information, but at that time there wasn't really very much out there. At university, they often have students visiting from high schools, so at one point I was given the opportunity to talk about everyday chemistry; I think the t.i.tle was something like "Everyday Chemistry in the Kitchen." Then I put up a web page, and when I finished my PhD many years later, the page had grown, so I figured I would continue. I moved everything to http://khymos.org and started blogging. and started blogging.The whole time, it's only been a hobby. I've always liked cooking. Every chemist should actually be a decent cook, because chemists, at least organic chemists, are very used to following recipes. It's what they do every day at the lab. I often tease my colleagues, especially if they claim that they can't bring a cake to the office for a meeting, I say, "Well, as a chemist, you should be able to follow a recipe!" As a chemist, I've always had, in a way, curiosity. I bring that curiosity back home into the kitchen and wonder, "Why does the recipe tell me to do this or that?" That's really the case.How has your science background impacted the way that you think about cooking?I think about cooking from a chemical perspective. What you do in cooking is actually a lot of chemical and physical changes. Perhaps the most important thing is temperature, because many changes in the kitchen are due to temperature variations. Searing meat and sous vide are also good places to start. With sous vide, people gradually arrive at the whole concept themselves. If you ask them how they would prepare a good steak, many people would say you should take it out of the refrigerator ahead of time, so you temper the meat. While you temper it, why not just put it in the sink-you could use lukewarm water? Then if you take that further, why not actually temper the meat at the desired core temperature? Most people will say that's a good idea, then I say that's sous vide. It becomes obvious for people that that's actually a good idea.I'm very fascinated by the hydrocolloids. One of the reasons I spent so much time putting the recipes together was that when I bought hydrocolloids, maybe one or two recipes would be included, but I found them not to be very ill.u.s.trative. Everyone is familiar with gelatin, less so with pectin, but all the rest are largely unfamiliar. People don't know how they work, how you should disperse them and hydrate them, or their properties. The idea was to collect recipes that ill.u.s.trate as many of the ways to use them as possible. You can read a couple of the recipes and then can go into the kitchen and do your own stuff. That's what I hope it will enable people to do.NoteSee Buying Food Additives Buying Food Additives in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for an explanation of colloids. for an explanation of colloids.I think it's a fantastic recipe collection, having used it myself for exactly the purpose that you describe. Out of curiosity, is there a favorite hydrocolloid of yours?No, I haven't even tried them all-I don't have all of them in my kitchen.Really?I think the reason is more lack of time. With a full-time job, children, family... there's simply not enough time. It's a lot easier to skip the practical part and concentrate on the theory.Is there a particular recipe from which you've learned the most or found interesting or unexpected in some way?It's hard to think of one recipe. When talking about molecular gastronomy, it's easy to focus too much on the fancy applications like using liquid nitrogen or hydrocolloids. It's important to emphasize that this is not what molecular gastronomy is about, although many people think that; many people a.s.sociate molecular gastronomy with foams and alginate.I always try to include basic things to get down to earth. One thing that comes to mind is bread. It is really fascinating the great variety that you can achieve by using only water, flour, and salt. With the flour and water, you already have the wild yeast present, so you have everything set up for a sourdough. Then it depends on how you prepare your starter, the ratios involved, how you proof your dough, and how you bake it. Of course, this is not something new; bakers know this. But from a scientific viewpoint, it's very interesting to think about that. The no-knead bread ill.u.s.trates a lot of chemistry; you're probably familiar with that?[image]I am, but go on.Glutamine and gliadin, the two proteins that make gluten, can combine all by themselves once you have a dough that is wet enough. The typical hydration for no-knead bread would be somewhere in the 75% to 77% range. You bake the bread in a preheated pot, where you simulate a steam oven. Moist air is a much better heat conductor than dry air, and the moisture condenses on the surface of the bread. It enhances the crust formation and helps the gelatinization of the starch. It also prevents the crust from drying out and limiting the rise of the bread, so you get a much better oven spring this way. Once you remove the lid, everything is set for the Maillard reaction as the crust dries out. So there is a lot about both the way you make dough and the way you bake the bread that exemplifies basic chemistry and physics.Bread-No-Knead Method Weight Volume Baker's % Ingredient 390g 3 to 3 cups 100%.

All-purpose white flour 300g 1 cups 77%.

Water 7g 1 teaspoon 1.8%.

Salt ~2g teaspoon

Fresh yeast (a pea-sized lump); you can subst.i.tute 1 teaspoon (5g) instant yeast

Mix everything until the flour is completely moistened. This should take only about 30 seconds. Cover and let rest at room temperature for 20 hours.[image]Place a medium-sized cast iron pot in your oven and preheat both to 450F / 230C. While the oven is heating, transfer the dough onto a floured surface and fold three or four times. Leave for 15 minutes. Shape rapidly into a boule-a round loaf-and place on a generously floured cloth towel. Proof until doubled in size. Dump into the preheated cast iron pot and bake with the lid on for 30 minutes. Take the lid off and bake until the crust has a dark golden color, about 15 minutes.ADAPTED BY MARTIN LERSCH FROM JIM LAHEY'S NEW YORK TIMES NEW YORK TIMES RECIPE RECIPEMill Your Own FlourMilling flour is a lot easier than you might imagine: snag some wheat berries-which are just hulled wheat kernels, with bran, germ, and endosperm still intact-from your local health food store or co-op, run them through a mill, and you've got fresh flour.[image]Why bother? Well, for one, the taste is fresher; volatile compounds in the wheat won't have had time to break down. Then there are the health aspects. Most commercial whole wheat flours have to heat-process the germ to prevent it from going rancid, but this heat-processing also affects some of the fats in the flour.On the downside, freshly milled flour won't develop gluten as well as aged flour. For a rustic loaf of bread, this is probably fine, but it's not so good if you're trying to make whole wheat pasta, in which the gluten helps hold the pasta together. Of course, you can always add in some gluten flour to boost the gluten levels back up.You have a couple of options for mills. KitchenAid makes a mill attachment for its mixers. If you do spring for a KitchenAid attachment, though, be warned that it can put quite a strain on the mixer. Set it to low speed and run your grain through in two pa.s.ses, doing a first pa.s.s to a coa.r.s.e grind before doing a fine grind. Alternatively, take a look at K-Tec's Kitchen Mill, which is in roughly the same price range but is designed specifically for the task.You can run other grains, such as rice and barley, through a mill as well. Too-moist grains and higher-fat items such as almonds or cocoa nibs are a no-go, though: they'll gum up the grinder.[image]Wheat berries.[image]First pa.s.s: coa.r.s.e grind.[image]Second pa.s.s: fine grind.P.S. Don't expect to be able to mill things like cake flour. Cake flour is bleached with chlorine gas to mature it. Maturing Maturing-the process by which flour is aged-would eventually happen naturally due to oxidation, but chlorine treatment speeds it up. It also modifies the starch in the flour so that it can absorb more water during gelatinization (see Making gels: Starches Making gels: Starches in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for more on gelatinization of starches) and weakens the proteins in the flour, reducing the amount of gluten that can be formed. Additionally, chlorination lowers the temperature of gelatinization, so batters that include solids-nuts, fruits, chocolate chips-perform better because there's less time for the solids to sink before the starches are able to gel up around them. for more on gelatinization of starches) and weakens the proteins in the flour, reducing the amount of gluten that can be formed. Additionally, chlorination lowers the temperature of gelatinization, so batters that include solids-nuts, fruits, chocolate chips-perform better because there's less time for the solids to sink before the starches are able to gel up around them.

Biological Leaveners Biologically based leaveners-primarily yeast, but also bacteria for salt-rising breads-are surely the oldest method for generating air in foods. Presumably, a prehistoric baker first discovered that a bowl of flour and water left out will begin to ferment as yeast from the surrounding environment settles in it.

Yeast Yeast is a single-celled fungus that enzymatically breaks down sugar and other sources of carbon to release carbon dioxide, ethanol, and other compounds, giving drinks their carbonation, spirits their alcohol, and beer and bread their distinctive flavors. Even making chocolate involves yeast-the cocoa beans are fermented, which generates the precursors to the chocolate flavor.

Different strains of yeast create different flavors. Over the years we've "domesticated" certain strains by selective breeding-from common baker's yeast for bread and wine (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to those for beer (usually S. carlsbergensis S. carlsbergensis, a.k.a. S. pastoria.n.u.s S. pastoria.n.u.s).

Since there's plenty of yeast literally floating around, you don't have to directly spike your brew or seed your bread with yeast. New strains of yeast usually start out as wild hitchhikers, and sometimes they taste great. Traditionally winemakers relied on ambient yeasts present in their cellars or even on the grapes themselves (this is the origin of the traditional European le gout de terroir le gout de terroir approach to winemaking). approach to winemaking).

However, the "Russian roulette yeast method" might not end so well when you're working in your kitchen: there's a decent chance you'll end up with a nasty and foul strain of yeast that'll generate unpleasant-tasting sulfur and phenol compounds. This is why you should add a "starter" strain: providing a large quant.i.ty of a particular strain ensures that it will out-race any other yeasts that might be present in the environment.

NoteThere's nothing magical about the strains of yeast we use other than someone taking notice of their flavor and thinking, "Hey, this one tastes pretty good, I think I'll hang on to it!"

Like any living critter, yeast prefers to live in a particular temperature zone, with different strains preferring different temperatures. The yeast commonly used in baking breads-aptly named baker's yeast baker's yeast-does best at room temperature (5575F / 1324C). In brewing beer, ales and stouts are made with a yeast that is similar to baker's yeast; it also thrives at room temperature. Lagers and steam beer use a bottom-fermenting yeast that prefers a cooler environment around 3255 F / 013C. Keep in mind the temperature range that the yeast you're using likes, and remember: too hot, and it'll die.

Yeast in beverages Wine, beer, and traditional sodas all depend on yeast to ferment sugar into alcohol and generate carbonation. Consider the following equation: Fermentation = Water + Carbon (usually Sugar) + Yeast + Optional Flavorings Selecting the appropriate strain of yeast and controlling the breeding environment-providing food, storing at proper temperatures-allows for the creation of our everyday drinks: - Wine = Grape Juice[Water + Sugar] + Yeast - Beer = Water + Barley[Sugar] + Yeast + Hops[Flavoring]

- Mead = Water + Honey[Sugar] + Yeast - Soda = Water + Sugar + Yeast + Flavorings Some of these are easier processes to control than others. Wine, for example, is relatively straightforward, with few variables: vary the sugar level to control the amount of yeast activity and choose the grapes and strain of yeast per your desired type of wine (trace elements in the grapes themselves are usually responsible for the flavor and aromas in wine). Beer has more variables to play with: in addition to sugar levels, proteins and saccharides have to be controlled to correctly balance viscosity and head, and the bitterness of the hops has to be managed.

NoteHops-the flowers of a herbaceous perennial-are a recent addition to beer making. The earliest beers were flatter and sweeter, and would quickly spoil. Around the eighth century, brewers discovered adding hops extended storage times by acting as a preservative.Ginger Lemon SodaMaking your own homebrew doesn't have to be a long, drawn-out process. You can make your own soda with just a few minutes of work, and it's rewarding to see the curtain pulled back on an everyday drink, as the following recipe ill.u.s.trates.Start with an empty two-liter soda bottle. Add water, sugar, yeast, and flavorings, let it set at room temp for two days to give the yeast a chance to do its thing, and you'll have soda.Create a ginger syrup by bringing to a boil and simmering for at least 15 minutes: - 1 cup (240g) water - cup (150g) sugar - 1 cup (90g) ginger, finely chopped Strain simple syrup to remove ginger pieces and transfer into a two-liter soda bottle. Add: - 30 oz (900g) water - 4 oz (120g) lemon juice - teaspoon (1g) yeast Screw on lid, shake to combine, let rest at room temperature for two days, and then transfer to fridge and drink.

Dark & Stormy c.o.c.ktail In a highball filled with ice, pour: - 6 oz (180ml) Ginger Lemon Soda - 2 oz (60ml) Dark Rum Garnish with a slice of lime.

[image]Notes - For yeast, try using Lalvin's #1118 yeast (available online at http://www.lalvinyeast.com) or look for a local brewing shop. Baker's yeast can be used, but it'll contribute a slightly odd flavor. or look for a local brewing shop. Baker's yeast can be used, but it'll contribute a slightly odd flavor.

- Try adding cayenne pepper or other spices to the simple syrup, or making other flavors, such as mint lime. The method is the same-create a flavored simple syrup (say, cup mint leaves simmered instead of ginger), and use lime juice in the place of lemon juice. Like mojitos? In a tall gla.s.s filled with ice, pour 3 oz (90 ml) mint lime soda, 2 oz (60 ml) white rum, and 1 oz (30 ml) lime juice. To be proper, muddle fresh mint leaves with sugar in the gla.s.s before adding the ice.

- You can skip peeling the ginger, since it will be strained out. However, the ginger will become tender and sugary-this is how to make candied ginger!-so slice off the skin if you do want to save the pieces.

- Want to go all out, DIY-Soda-Company style? "Recycle" some beer bottles and cap them yourself with a handy-dandy beer bottle capper, available for about $20 online.[image]

The Four Stages of Yeast in CookingYou've just added starter yeast to bread dough or a liquid such as wort (beer liquid before it's beer). What happens next?

- Respiration. A cell gains and stores energy. No oxygen? No respiration. During this stage, the yeast builds up energy so it can reproduce. A cell gains and stores energy. No oxygen? No respiration. During this stage, the yeast builds up energy so it can reproduce.

- Reproduction. The yeast cell multiplies via budding or direct division (fission) in the presence of oxygen. Acidic compounds get oxidized during this stage, with the quant.i.ty and rate depending upon the strain of yeast, resulting in different pH levels in the food. The yeast cell multiplies via budding or direct division (fission) in the presence of oxygen. Acidic compounds get oxidized during this stage, with the quant.i.ty and rate depending upon the strain of yeast, resulting in different pH levels in the food.

- Fermentation. Once the yeast has utilized all the available oxygen, it switches to the anaerobic process of fermentation. The cell's mitochondria convert sugar to alcohol and generate CO Once the yeast has utilized all the available oxygen, it switches to the anaerobic process of fermentation. The cell's mitochondria convert sugar to alcohol and generate CO2 ("yeast farts"!) and other compounds in the process. You can control the level of carbonation and alcohol in beverages by controlling the amount of sugar. ("yeast farts"!) and other compounds in the process. You can control the level of carbonation and alcohol in beverages by controlling the amount of sugar.

- Sedimentation. Once the yeast is out of options for generating energy-no more oxygen and no more sugar-the cell shuts down, switching to a dormant mode in the hope that more oxygen and food will come along some day. In brewing, it conveniently clumps together (called Once the yeast is out of options for generating energy-no more oxygen and no more sugar-the cell shuts down, switching to a dormant mode in the hope that more oxygen and food will come along some day. In brewing, it conveniently clumps together (called flocculation flocculation) and settles to the bottom, where it'll stay if you're careful when pouring out the liquid. Commercial beverages filter out and remove this sedimentation before bottling, but if you make your own brew, don't be surprised at the thick layer of gunk that forms.

While each yeast cell goes through these stages, different cells can be in different stages at the same time. That is, some cells can be reproducing while others are respiring or fermenting.

Yeast in breads Baker's yeast comes in three varieties: instant, active dry, and fresh. All three types are the same strain: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The instant and active dry versions have been dried so as to form a protective sh.e.l.l of dead yeast cells surrounding some still-living cells. Fresh yeast-also called cake yeast cake yeast because it is sold in a compressed cake form-is essentially a block of the yeast without any protective sh.e.l.l, giving it a much shorter shelf life (well, fridge life): cake yeast is good for about two weeks in the fridge, whereas instant yeast is good for about a year and active dry yeast is good for about two years in the cupboard. because it is sold in a compressed cake form-is essentially a block of the yeast without any protective sh.e.l.l, giving it a much shorter shelf life (well, fridge life): cake yeast is good for about two weeks in the fridge, whereas instant yeast is good for about a year and active dry yeast is good for about two years in the cupboard.

Instant and active dry yeast are essentially identical, with two differences. First, active dry yeast has a thicker protective sh.e.l.l around it. This gives it a longer shelf life, but it also means it must be soaked in water before use to soften up the protective sh.e.l.l. The second difference is that the quant.i.ty of active yeast cells in active dry yeast is lower than in instant yeast, because the thicker protective sh.e.l.l takes up more s.p.a.ce: when a recipe calls for 1 teaspoon (2.9g) of active dry yeast, you can subst.i.tute in teaspoon (2.3g) of instant yeast.

Instant yeast is the easiest to work with: add it directly into the dry ingredients and mix. Unless you have reason to work with active dry or cake yeast, use instant yeast. Remember to store it in the fridge!

NoteThe recipes in this chapter a.s.sume that you are using instant yeast. Check in the refrigerated section of your grocery store: SAF Instant and Red Star are two of the more common brands.If you have active dry yeast instead, you will need to proof it first. Proofing-soaking in lukewarm water-softens the hard sh.e.l.l around the active dry yeast granules. Use lukewarm water (105F / 40C). If the water is below 100F / 38C, an amino acid called glutathione will leak out from the cell walls and make your dough sticky; if it's above 120F / 49C, the yeast will show very little activity.Don't be worried about too-hot tap water killing your yeast. Yeast actually dies somewhere above 131F / 55C, so too-hot water from the tap shouldn't be able to kill the yeast; it just slows down reproduction. You can confirm this by filling a gla.s.s with your hottest tap water, dumping in some yeast, waiting a few minutes to give the yeast time to come up to temperature, and then adding some flour and watching the yeast still do its thing.You can skip all this proofing and temperature stuff by just using instant yeast.Check Your Yeast!In baking, proofing proofing can refer to a few different things: checking that your yeast is alive, allowing the dough to rise, or allowing the shaped loaf to rest and rise before baking. can refer to a few different things: checking that your yeast is alive, allowing the dough to rise, or allowing the shaped loaf to rest and rise before baking.Whatever you call it, you should make sure that your yeast is alive before proceeding to work with it. Measure out 2 teaspoons (10g) of the yeast and 1 teaspoon (5g) of sugar into a gla.s.s and add cup (120g) of lukewarm water (105F / 40C). Stir and let rest for two to three minutes.You should see small bubbles forming on the surface. If you don't, your yeast is dead-time to head to the store.You probably don't need to check your yeast every time you use it, especially if you're using instant yeast and storing it in your fridge. If you notice that your doughs aren't rising as expected, though, give the yeast a quick check.[image]Proofed yeast will bubble up and foam (left); dead yeast will separate out and not foam (right).Bread-Traditional MethodIf you've never made bread before, a simple loaf is easy enough to make, and perfecting it will keep you busy for many years. This is one of those recipes that's worth making several days in a row, making one change at a time to understand how your changes impact the final loaf.In a large bowl, whisk to thoroughly combine: - 1 cups (180g) bread flour - 1 cups (180g) whole wheat flour - 3 tablespoons (30g) gluten flour (optional) - 1 teaspoons salt (2 teaspoons if using kosher or flake salt) - 1 teaspoons instant yeast (not active dry yeast) active dry yeast) Add: - 1 cup (240g) water - 1 teaspoon (7g) honey Stir just to incorporate-maybe 10 strokes with a spoon-and allow to rest for 20 to 30 minutes, during which the flour will absorb the water (called autolysing autolysing).After the dough has undergone autolysis, knead it. You can do this against a cutting board, pressing down on the dough with the palm of your hand, pushing it away from yourself, and then folding it back up on top of itself, rotating the ball every few times. I sometimes just hold the dough in my hands and work it, stretching it and folding it, but this is probably unorthodox. Continue kneading the dough until it pa.s.ses the "stretch test": tear off a small piece of the dough and stretch it. It shouldn't tear; if it does, continue kneading.Form the dough into a ball and let it rest in the large bowl, covered with plastic wrap (spray it with nonstick spray to avoid it sticking), until it doubles in size, normally about 4 to 6 hours. Try to store the dough someplace where the temperature is between 72F / 22C and 80F / 26.5C. If the dough is kept too warm-say, if you're in a hot climate, or it's too close to a heating vent-it will double in size more quickly, so keep an eye on it and use common sense. Warmer-and thus faster-isn't necessarily better, though: longer rest times will allow for better flavor development.After the dough has risen, give it a quick second kneading-more of a quick ma.s.sage to work out any large gas bubbles-and form it into a tight ball. Coat it with a light dusting of flour, place it on a pizza peel (or piece of cardboard), cover it with plastic wrap again, and allow it to rest for another hour or two.NoteYeast produces both acetic and lactic acid at different rates depending upon temperature. Ideal rising temperature is between 72F / 22C and 80F / 26.5C.If kept too cold, dough will be tough and flat due to insufficient gas production, and the final loaf will have uneven crumb, irregular holes, and a too-dark, hard crust.On the other hand, dough risen in an environment too warm will be dry, lack elasticity, and break when stretched, and the final loaf will have sour-tasting crumbs, large cells with thick walls, and a pale/whitish crust.While waiting for the dough to proof, place either a pizza stone or a baking stone in your oven and set it to 425F / 220C. (No pizza stone? Use a cast iron griddle or cast iron pan, flipped upside down.) Make sure that the oven is fully heated before baking-a full hour of preheating is not unreasonable.Just before transferring the dough to the oven, pour a cup or two of boiling water into a baking pan or cookie sheet and set it on a shelf below the baking stone. (Use an old cookie sheet; the water may leave a hard-to-clean residue on it.) Alternatively, you can use a spray bottle to squirt the inside of the oven a dozen or so times to increase the humidity. (Be careful not to hit the light bulb inside: it can shatter.) Upping the humidity will help impart heat into the bread faster and will also prevent the outside of the loaf from setting prematurely, giving the bread better oven spring oven spring-the rise that occurs as the loaf heats up in the oven before the outside of the loaf sets and becomes, essentially, an exoskeleton.With a serrated knife, lightly slash the top of the loaf with an "X" and then place it into the oven. Bake until the crust is golden brown and the loaf gives a hollow sound when rapped on the bottom with your knuckles, about 30 minutes. You can also check for doneness using an instant-read thermometer; the internal temperature should be above 205F / 96C and ideally around 210F / 98.5C, which is the temperature at which starches in flour break down (see Making gels: Starches Making gels: Starches in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for more about starch gelatinization). for more about starch gelatinization).Allow the bread to cool for at least 30 minutes or so before slicing; it needs to cool sufficiently for the starches to gelatinize and set.Notes - If even at the ideal rising and baking temperatures your bread is still coming out too dense, try reducing the amount of whole wheat flour to 1 cup (120g) and increasing the bread flour to 2 cups (240g).

- For an even simpler bread, see the interview with Martin Lersch in Gluten Gluten earlier in this chapter, or search online for "no-knead bread." Mark Bittman of the earlier in this chapter, or search online for "no-knead bread." Mark Bittman of the New York Times New York Times describes a technique used by Jim Lahey, a baker in New York, in which the dough is left to sit for a day, during which the gluten forms without kneading. describes a technique used by Jim Lahey, a baker in New York, in which the dough is left to sit for a day, during which the gluten forms without kneading.

- For a slightly more complicated method, try starting with a sponge: a prefermentation of flour, water, and yeast that allows for better flavor development. Instead of adding all the flour and water together at the beginning, mix half of the flour (180g) with[image] (140g) of the water (ideally, at 75F / 24C-if it's any warmer, oxidation will impact the flavor) and all of the yeast (7g), and allow that to rise until bubbles start to form on the surface and the sponge starts to fall. Once this stage is reached, mix the sponge up with the rest of the water (100g), add the rest of the flour (180g) and salt (7g), and allow the mixture to rise per the earlier instructions. For more details, see Edward Espe Brown's (140g) of the water (ideally, at 75F / 24C-if it's any warmer, oxidation will impact the flavor) and all of the yeast (7g), and allow that to rise until bubbles start to form on the surface and the sponge starts to fall. Once this stage is reached, mix the sponge up with the rest of the water (100g), add the rest of the flour (180g) and salt (7g), and allow the mixture to rise per the earlier instructions. For more details, see Edward Espe Brown's The Ta.s.sajara Bread Book The Ta.s.sajara Bread Book (Shambhala). (Shambhala).

- While the exact science of what causes bread to go stale is still unknown, a couple of different mechanisms are reasonable suspects. One thought is that, upon baking, starches in flour convert to a form that can bind with water, but that they slowly recrystallize after baking and in doing so release the water, which then gets absorbed by the gluten, changing the texture of the crumb. Then there's the crust, which draws away some moisture from the middle of the bread, causing the texture of the crust to change. Regardless of the exact mechanism, storing bread in the fridge speeds up these changes in texture while freezing does not, so keep your bread at room temperature or freeze it. (The only benefit to storing bread in the fridge is that it slows the growth of some types of mold.) Toasting the bread above the temperature at which starches gelatinize reverses some of these changes.

- Try adding rosemary, olives, or diced and sauteed onion during the second kneading. Or, use only bread flour and add some large chunks of bittersweet chocolate.

Yeast WafflesBaker's yeast contains a number of enzymes, one of which, zymase, converts simple sugars (dextrose and fructose) into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It's this enzyme that gives yeast its rising capabilities. Zymase doesn't break down lactose sugars, though, so doughs and batters made with milk will end up tasting sweeter. This is why some bread recipes call for milk and why foods like yeast waffles come out with a rich, sweet flavor.At least two hours in advance, but preferably the night before, measure out and whisk together: - 1 cups (450g) milk (whole, preferably) - cup (115g) melted b.u.t.ter - 2 teaspoons (10g) sugar or honey - 1 teaspoon (6g) salt (table salt-not the kosher or flaky type) - 2 cups (300g) flour (all-purpose) - 1 tablespoon (15g) instant yeast (not active dry yeast) active dry yeast) - 2 large (120g) eggs Cover and store at room temperature. Make sure to use a large bowl or container with enough heads.p.a.ce to allow the batter to rise.Briefly stir the batter and then bake in your waffle iron per instructions of your waffle iron manufacturer.Notes - In baking, use table salt, not kosher or flake salt, because the finer-grained salt will mix more uniformly into the batter.

- Try using honey, maple syrup, or agave nectar instead of sugar, and try subst.i.tuting whole wheat flour or oat flour for half of the all-purpose flour.

- If your waffles come out not as crispy as you like, toss them in an oven preheated to 250F / 120C-hot enough to quickly evaporate out water, cold enough to avoid caramelization and Maillard reactions.

Pizza If there's one stereotypical geek food, it would have to be pizza: ubiquitous, cheap, and cheesy. But the stuff sold in your local strip mall is far inferior to what you can make at home. It's like the difference between canned fruit and the fresh thing: both can be good, but the fresh version is distinctly more nuanced.

Start by making pizza dough. You can also buy pizza dough at your grocery store, although I find I get better results when I make it from scratch (see Bread-No-Knead Method Bread-No-Knead Method for a simple no-knead pizza dough recipe, or for a simple no-knead pizza dough recipe, or Pizza Dough-Yeast-Free Method Pizza Dough-Yeast-Free Method for a yeast-free pizza dough recipe). for a yeast-free pizza dough recipe).

Set out a large cutting board and sprinkle a handful of flour in the center area. Preheat your oven to at least 450F / 230C. Take about 1 lb (450g) of the dough and form it into a ball between your hands, kneading and folding it over. The dough should be just slightly sticky, but not so much that it actually remains stuck to your hand. If it's too sticky, add more flour by dredging it in the flour on the cutting board. Continue to work the dough until it reaches a firm consistency and has good elasticity when stretched. Begin to work the dough into a flat, round disc, and then roll it into a round pizza shape.

Par-bake the pizza dough by baking it on a pizza stone in a hot oven. You can transfer the pizza dough by carefully picking it up and laying it onto the stone; don't burn yourself! If you don't have a pizza stone (although I highly recommend them-see the pizza dough by baking it on a pizza stone in a hot oven. You can transfer the pizza dough by carefully picking it up and laying it onto the stone; don't burn yourself! If you don't have a pizza stone (although I highly recommend them-see Approaching the Kitchen Approaching the Kitchen in in Chapter2 Chapter2 for how they can be used to improve your oven), you can use a cast iron pan, upside down, to similar effect. Let the pizza bake for three to five minutes, until the dough has set. If the dough puffs up in one place, use a chef's knife to poke a small hole in the bubble and then use the flat side of the knife blade to push the puffed portion back down. Par-baking the dough isn't traditional, but it'll help avoid soggy, undercooked dough and also makes transferring the topped pizza into the oven a heck of a lot easier. It simplifies the cooking of the pizza, too: cook the dough until it's effectively ready, and then cook the toppings until they melt and fuse, as opposed to trying to get both to occur at the same time. for how they can be used to improve your oven), you can use a cast iron pan, upside down, to similar effect. Let the pizza bake for three to five minutes, until the dough has set. If the dough puffs up in one place, use a chef's knife to poke a small hole in the bubble and then use the flat side of the knife blade to push the puffed portion back down. Par-baking the dough isn't traditional, but it'll help avoid soggy, undercooked dough and also makes transferring the topped pizza into the oven a heck of a lot easier. It simplifies the cooking of the pizza, too: cook the dough until it's effectively ready, and then cook the toppings until they melt and fuse, as opposed to trying to get both to occur at the same time.

Once the pizza dough has been par-baked, remove it from the oven and place it on your cutting board. Add sauce and toppings. The sauce can be anything from a thin coating of olive oil to traditional tomato sauce. Or make a white cheese sauce, as described in Bechamel Sauce (White Sauce) Bechamel Sauce (White Sauce) in in Chapter3 Chapter3. For toppings such as onions and sausage, saute them before placing them on the pizza. Cooking the dough and toppings separately removes all the constraints a.s.sociated with the various ingredients needing varying cooking times, leaving just three goals: melting the cheese to fuse the ingredients together, browning the edge of the crust, and browning the top surface of the toppings. Finish cooking by transferring the dressed pizza into the oven (using a pizza peel or, in a pinch, a piece of cardboard) and baking it until any cheese is melted and the pizza has begun to turn golden brown, about 8 to 12 minutes.

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Jeff Varasano on Pizza[image]PHOTO USED BY PERMISSION OF JEFF VARASANOJeff Varasano moved from New York to Atlanta, where a lack of New Yorkstyle pizza drove him to years of experimenting-to the point where he clipped the lock on his oven so that he could bake pizza in a super-hot oven set to its cleaning cycle. He eventually quit his job as a C++ programmer and opened Varasano's Pizzeria in Atlanta.How did you go from C++ programming to making pizza?I moved from New York to Atlanta. Like a lot of people transplanted from the Northeast, I started to seek out the best pizza. A lot of places claim to be like New York, and you go there and you're like, "Hmm, have these guys ever been to New York?" So I started to bake at home. At first I would just call up all of my friends and say, "Look, I'm making pizza tonight. It's going to be pretty terrible, but why don't you come try it?" And it really was pretty bad.I started experimenting. I did all the flours. I experimented with different methods of heating my oven. I tried to do it on the grill. I tried to wrap my oven in aluminum foil to keep all the heat in. Then I moved to a new house and I had an oven with a cleaning cycle. I didn't really know what a cleaning cycle was. I had never had an oven with a cleaning cycle, but I ran it and I realized that it was basically just incinerating the contents. It was like, "Aha, I've got to get in there!" So that's where the whole idea of clipping the lock came from.I threw up this website (now at http://www.varasanos.com/PizzaRecipe.htm). I really didn't think too much about it. For a year and a half the counter was at about 3,000 and in a day it jumped from 3,000 to 11,000 and crashed my server. I realized that people were pounding that page and pretty much from that day forward I started to get email. That's what started me down the whole tunnel of thinking about giving up the software stuff and going into pizza.In the process of learning how to do your pizza, what turned out to matter more than you expected, and on the other side, what turned out to matter less?Well, clearly what mattered less was the flour. Everyone is looking for the piece of equipment or secret ingredient that they can buy which will all of a sudden transform their pizza into something great. It's not that. This is one of the things I realized early on. There is no magic bullet. If you look at the top five pizzerias on my list, you'll see they use five different ovens: gas, wood burning, coal burning, electric, and believe it or not, an oil burning oven. Not only do they use different fuels, they're different shapes, they're different temperatures, some bake their pizza for two minutes, some seven. So what is it then? The answer is that it's an art, it's everything all together at that one moment. That's what I realized, learning the basics and the fundamentals, you come into style and artistry and that's much more difficult to define. It's not going to be a single secret.A lot of geeks who are learning to cook get hung up on the very small details and miss the big picture of just getting in there and trying something and playing with it.Yeah. I've always been an experimenter. But I've always had sort of a different way of approaching problems. I don't make very many a.s.sumptions about the way things should be done. Most people a.s.sume that knowing how things should be done is the best way, so they keep struggling within a very small circle, whereas I have a tendency to just try a much wider variety of things that may work and may not work.So when you get stuck on one of these problems even though you're working in a wider circle, how do you go about getting unstuck?That's an interesting question. Let me deviate from that slightly and then I'll come back. Most people are familiar with the scientific method, which is holding everything exactly the same and changing this one thing. This reminds me of people trying to do one side of the Rubik's Cube. Most of the good methods don't involve getting any side. That's the last thing you do. So people get stuck because they don't want to toss in the towel on the progress they think they've made so far. So if you want to make it past one level, you may have to sc.r.a.p your whole methodology and just start over. And you see that with pizzas.Art begins where engineering ends. Engineering is about taking what's known and carrying it to its logical conclusion. So what do you do when you have exploited everything you know, but you want to go to the next level? At that point, you have to start opening your mind up to completely random ways of thinking through something. That might involve taking multiple steps at a time. It might be that you don't abandon one thing, but you have to abandon five things.As an example using pizza, as soon as I switch flour, I can't just keep the same hydration because if I change the flour then I may also have to change the water, or the dough may have a different consistency. Well, guess what, when I increase the hydration then the heat penetration into the dough is going to be slower because more of that water has to boil off. So now all of a sudden I might have to change the oven temperature, too. I'd love to conduct a controlled experiment that would conclude that Flour B is better than Flour A, holding all other variables constant. But in the real world such a test is somewhat meaningless. This is why it's an art.This makes a lot of sense. I think a lot of geeks out there would say that this would be a multivariate approach to finding one of these optimal points of pizza recipes and techniques.That's right. And you have to work on the underlying forces and begin to understand them independently, but in the end the results are not going to be a set of independent things, they're going to be a set of interdependent things.In the first stage of working a problem or trying to master a skill, you find that everything seems totally dependent and that's when you have the least power. The next stage is to make things independent and to break things down and cla.s.sify them. The whole idea is to segment things into finer and finer individual techniques. The ultimate stage is learning how to reconnect all of those parts that you separated out and now reorganizing them into something where the pieces are interdependent rather than a collection of things that are independent.I am at the middle stage myself, so I don't quite see how all the pieces fit together. For example, if we don't leave the heater on in the restaurant, then the dough warms up overnight at a different rate than it did a couple of days ago. I think, well, there really doesn't seem to be that much difference but I know there was that two-degree difference, so I'll correct for it. I'll think I'm back where I started, but I am not. And then sometimes you don't even know what's different and then you just literally scratch your head. In a year it will be obvious what was different.Can you give me an example?One of the ingredients I had given pretty minimal thought to-and didn't realize how important it was-was oregano. I have a little herb garden in front of my house and I grow some oregano. I didn't like the strain I had. One day I found a better sample in an abandoned herb garden. I dug it up and I put it in my front yard and used it.So now I'm ready to launch the restaurant and I'm going to all my suppliers looking for oregano. Thirty-three oreganos later, I'm still sitting here saying none of them tastes like the one that I grew in my garden.You don't realize that there is a difference to be worked on, but that's when you're caught with your guard down. The oregano that I really, really like is a year away from production quant.i.ty so now I'm experimenting; maybe there's a better way to dry the oreganos that I have. If I get a fresh one, maybe I can dry it differently and maybe it's the drying process will give me something closer to what I want. So now I've gone down the tunnel trying five, six, or seven ways of drying it; heated drying using a dehydration machine that blows a fan and a little bit of heat over it using dehumidifiers and all these different things.So it sounds like your method for overcoming this is to try a lot of different things?It really is, and you know it's funny because I like to say, well, how do you know? I tried everything and a lot of people think, wow, it's amazing you figured this out! People think there is some sort of secret magic, but the problem is that when you get to the end of what's known, when you get to the end of engineering, you're left with hunch and trial and error, but those carry you much farther than people often give them credit for.[image]Pizza Dough-No-Knead MethodThis makes enough dough for one medium-sized pizza with the crust rolled thin. You'll probably want to multiply these quant.i.ties by the number of people you're cooking for.Weigh into a large bowl or plastic container: - 1 cups (170g) flour - 1 teaspoon (5g) salt - 1 tablespoon (10g) instant yeast Using a spoon, mix together so that the salt is thoroughly distributed. Add: - cup (120g) water Mix in the water using the spoon so that the flour and water are incorporated.Let rest on counter for at least four hours, preferably longer. You can mix the ingredients together at breakfast time (for example, before running off to that day job at Initech or wherever) and the dough will be ready by the time you get home. It's the same principle as the no-knead bread: the glutenin and gliadin proteins will slowly crosslink on their own.[image]You can cut and serve pizza directly off the peel. If you don't have a pizza peel, you can use a piece of cardboard to slip a pizza into and out of the oven.Notes - I have a confession to make: when it comes to pizza dough, I'm lazy and don't worry about exact hydration levels, proper kneading method, ideal rest times, and controlling temperature to generate the ideal flavor.

- If you want to experiment, order some sourdough yeast culture (which is actually a culture of both the well-known sourdough strain of yeast and the bacteria lactobacillus). lactobacillus). The ratio of yeast to bacteria in the dough will impact the flavor. You can control that ratio by letting the dough mature for some amount of time in the fridge, where yeast will multiply but bacteria won't; and some amount of time at room temperature, where the bacteria will contribute flavors. If you want to explore these variables, read Jeff Varasano The ratio of yeast to bacteria in the dough will impact the flavor. You can control that ratio by letting the dough mature for some amount of time in the fridge, where yeast will multiply but bacteria won't; and some amount of time at room temperature, where the bacteria will contribute flavors. If you want to explore these variables, read Jeff Varasano's web page on pizza-see the interview with him in Jeff Varasano on Pizza Jeff Varasano on Pizza for details. for details.

Chemical Leaveners While yeast allows for the creation of many delicious foods, it has two potential drawbacks: time and flavor. Commercial bakers with high volumes and those of us with limited time to play in the kitchen can't always afford to wait for yeast to do its thing. Then there're the flavors and aromas generated by yeast, which would clash with the flavors in something like a chocolate cake. Chemical leaveners have neither of these problems.

Chemical leaveners are divided into two categories: - Baking soda - A bicarbonate (HCO3) that's bound with another molecule-typically sodium, but sometimes pota.s.sium and ammonium. When added to water, the bicarbonate dissolves and is able to react with acids to generate CO2.

- Baking powder - A self-contained leavening system that generates carbon dioxide in the presence of water. Baking powders by definition contain a baking soda and acids for that baking soda to react with.

The idea that these are categories, not single ingredients, is probably foreign to most home cooks, but the chemicals that make up a baking powder or baking soda can vary. Industrial food manufacturers use different compositions and particulate sizes depending upon the food being produced.

Baking Soda Anyone who's done the third-grade science fair project using vinegar and baking soda to make a volcano can tell you that baking soda can generate a whole lot of gas really quickly. But in the kitchen, baking soda remains one of the bigger mysteries. How is it different from baking powder? And how do you know which one to use?

The quick answer would go something like: "Baking soda reacts with acid, so only use it when your ingredients are acidic." And as simple explanations go, this covers you 99% of the time when cooking. But baking soda is a little more complicated and interesting in a geeky way, so it's worth a brief digression into the chemistry. I promise this'll be short.

The baking soda you buy in the store is a specific chemical: sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3. Unlike baking powder, which is a blend of chemicals that are self-contained ("just add water and heat!"), when added to a dish, sodium bicarbonate needs something to react with in order to generate gas.

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Always sift dry ingredients together before adding in wet ingredients to make sure any salt, baking soda, or baking powder are truly dispersed. You can use a strainer over a bowl as a sifter or even just mix the ingredients with a wire whisk or a fork. sift dry ingredients together before adding in wet ingredients to make sure any salt, baking soda, or baking powder are truly dispersed. You can use a strainer over a bowl as a sifter or even just mix the ingredients with a wire whisk or a fork.

Without something for sodium bicarbonate to dissolve into, it's an inert white powder. Upon getting wet-any moisture in any food will do-the sodium bicarbonate dissolves, meaning that the sodium ions are free to run around separately from the bicarbonate ions.

NoteThe sodium is just there to transport the bicarbonate to your food; we can ignore it once it's dissolved. The sodium does make the food slightly saltier, incidentally, which is why industrial food manufacturers will sometimes use things like pota.s.sium bicarbonate: pota.s.sium is good for you, and this avoids the sodium for people on a low-sodium diet.

Most of us are familiar with the pH scale (the H stands for hydrogen; it's unclear what the p stands for, "power" and "potential" are the best guesses). The pH scale is a measure of the amount of available hydrogen ions in a solution. Chemicals that affect the number of hydrogen ions can be cla.s.sified in one of two ways: - Acids (pH below 7) - Proton donors; i.e., chemicals that increase the number of hydronium ions (H3O+; the hydrogen binds with a water molecule) in the solution - Bases (pH above 7) - Proton receivers; i.e., chemicals that bind with hydronium ions, reducing their available concentration in a solution When it comes to pH, a bicarbonate ion has an interesting property that chemists call amphotericity amphotericity: it can react with either an acid or a base. In the kitchen, so few things are actually basic-egg whites, baking soda, maybe the stuff in your fire extinguisher, and that's pretty much it-that you can safely ignore baking soda's ability to react with bases and just think of it as something that reacts with acids. Still, to understand baking soda, it's important to understand that bicarbonates react with other compounds and either raise the pH by reducing the amount of available acids or lower the pH by reducing the amount of available bases.

This phenomenon is called buffering buffering: a buffer buffer is something that stabilizes the pH level of a solution. Buffers hang out in the solution and, when an acid or base is added, glom on to it and prevent it from affecting the count of available hydronium ions. In a gla.s.s of pure water, there's not much for the bicarbonate ions from baking soda to interact with, so they just float around and taste generally nasty. But if you were to add a spoonful of vinegar-which is acetic acid-to that gla.s.s, the bicarbonate ions would react with the acetic acid and generate carbon dioxide as part of that reaction. is something that stabilizes the pH level of a solution. Buffers hang out in the solution and, when an acid or base is added, glom on to it and prevent it from affecting the count of available hydronium ions. In a gla.s.s of pure water, there's not much for the bicarbonate ions from baking soda to interact with, so they just float around and taste generally nasty. But if you were to add a spoonful of vinegar-which is acetic acid-to that gla.s.s, the bicarbonate ions would react with the acetic acid and generate carbon dioxide as part of that reaction.

Depending upon the amount of bicarbonate you started with, after you add the spoonful of vinegar the gla.s.s will be in one of three states (none of which involve being half-full or half-empty): bicarbonate ions still available but no acetic acid ions available, no bicarbonate ions available but acetic acid ions still available, or neither bicarbonate nor acetic acid ions freely available. In baking, it's this last state-a neutral balance-that we want to reach. Too much baking soda, and it won't all react with the acids in the food and will leave the food with a soapy, yucky taste. Not enough baking soda, and the food will remain slightly acidic (which is okay) and not have as much lift as possible (which is probably not okay-your food will be flat). To repeat one of my favorite quotes: "Dosage matters!"

The reaction between baking soda and an acid is the key to understanding when you should use baking soda versus baking powder. This balancing act between acids and baking soda isn't a problem with baking powder, of course. This is because the baking powder is already balanced for you-the ratio of acids to bicarbonate is preset by the manufacturer.

If your ingredients aren't very acidic, baking soda won't have much to react with, so use baking powder. On the other hand, if your ingredients are extremely acidic, using baking soda will work, since there will be enough hydronium ions to react with. How much baking soda to use depends on the pH of the ingredients in your dish. Short of testing or calculating the pH, experimentation is the easiest way: take a guess and keep notes. Keep adding baking soda until the additional baking soda no longer helps with lift (or can be tasted). If you're still not getting enough lift at this point, switch to adding baking powder.

NoteBaking soda doesn't need an acid to decompose; heat will do it, too. Try melting some sugar, just as though you were making caramel (see Caramel Sauce Caramel Sauce in in Chapter4 Chapter4), and instead of adding cream, add a small spoonful of baking soda and stir. The baking soda will break down and cause the sugar to bubble up.

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The pH of common ingredients.

b.u.t.termilk PancakesGiven time, yeast and bacteria generate flavors that we often find pleasant. But what about those times when you're craving that taste right now-or at least, sometime this morning? You can take a shortcut by using b.u.t.termilk, which has already been munched on by bacteria.Whisk together to combine thoroughly: - 2 cups (240g) bread flour - 5 tablespoons (60g) sugar - 1 teaspoons (7g) baking soda - 1 teaspoon (5g) salt In a separate bowl, melt: - cup (115g) melted b.u.t.ter In the same bowl as the b.u.t.ter, add and whisk together: - 2 cups (610g) b.u.t.termilk (lukewarm!) - 2 large (120g) eggs Mix the wet ingredients into the dry, stirring with a whisk or spoon to combine. Cook on a griddle or nonstick frying pan set over medium heat (if you have an IR thermometer, 325350F / 160175C) until golden brown, about two minutes per side.Notes - You don't need to b.u.t.ter the griddle or pan before cooking these-there is enough b.u.t.ter in the batter that the pancakes are self-lubricating-but if you do feel the need, wipe any excess b.u.t.ter out of the pan before cooking the pancakes. If you have any dots of oil on the surface, they'll interfere with the Maillard browning reactions.

- Pull the b.u.t.termilk and eggs out of the fridge an hour or so before you're ready to use them, to allow them to come up to room temperature. If you're in a rush, you can double-duty a microwave-safe mixing bowl: melt the b.u.t.ter in it, add the b.u.t.termilk, then nuke it for 30 seconds to raise the temperature of the b.u.t.termilk.

NoteTry using this batter for b.u.t.termilk fried chicken. Slice cooked chicken into bite-sized pieces, dredge them in cornstarch, dip them in this batter, and then deep-fry them in vegetable oil at 375F / 190C. The starch will help the batter adhere to the chicken. (No cornstarch? Use flour.) For the ideal texture, cook the chicken sous vide, as described in Sous Vide Cooking Sous Vide Cooking of of Chapter7 Chapter7.[image]Gingerbread CookiesChemical leaveners aren't always used to create light, fluffy foods. Even dense items need some air to keep them enjoyable.In a bowl, mix together with a wooden spoon or electric beater: - cup (100g) sugar - 6 tablespoons (80g) b.u.t.ter, softened but not melted - cup (170g) mola.s.ses - 1 tablespoon (17g) minced ginger (or ginger paste) In a separate bowl, whisk together: - 3 cups (400g) flour - 4 teaspoons (12g) ginger powder - 1 teaspoon (5g) baking soda - 2 teaspoons (3g) cinnamon - 1 teaspoon (1g) allspice - teaspoon (2g) salt - teaspoon (2g) ground black pepper Sift the dry ingredients into the bowl with the sugar/b.u.t.ter mixture. (I use a strainer as a sifter.) Work the dry and wet ingredients together using a spoon or, if you don't mind, your hands. The dough will get to a crumbly, sand-like texture. Add cup (120g) water and continue mixing until the dough forms a ball.Turn out the dough onto a cutting board coated with a few tablespoons of flour. Using a rolling pin, roll out the dough until it is about (0.6 cm) thick. Cut it into shapes using a cookie cutter or a paring knife and bake them on a cookie sheet in an oven set to 400F / 200C until cooked, about eight minutes. The cookies should be slightly puffed up and dry, but not overly dry.[image]Baking gingerbread cookies is, of course, a great holiday activity with kids.Gingerbread Cookie FrostingIn a microwave-safe bowl, mix together with a fork or electric beaters: - 3 tablespoons (40g) b.u.t.ter, softened but not melted - 1 cup (200g) powdered sugar - 1 tablespoon (15g) milk - 1 teaspoon (4g) vanilla extract Add food coloring if desired. Microwave the frosting for 15 to 30 seconds-long enough to melt the frosting, but not so long that it boils. This will give you a frosting that you can then quickly dip the cookies into and that will set into a nice, thin coating that adheres well to the cookies.[image]One-Bowl Chocolate CakeI have a thing against cake mixes. Sure, commercial mixes produce very consistent results-they use food additives and stabilizers exactly calibrated for the other ingredients in the cake mix-but even for a quick birthday cake, you can make a truly homemade one that actually tastes like chocolate without much more work.NoteCakes are commonly made using a two-stage method two-stage method, in which dry ingredients are weighed out and whisked in one bowl, wet ingredients are whisked in a second bowl, and then the two are combined. In the streamline method streamline method, all ingredients are mixed in the same bowl: first dry (to make sure the baking powder is thoroughly blended), then wet, then eggs.In a large large bowl or the bowl or the large large bowl of a mixer, measure out: bowl of a mixer, measure out: - 2 cups (450g) sugar - 2 cups (240g) pastry or cake flour (all-purpose flour is okay, too) - cup (70g) cocoa powder (unsweetened) - 2 teaspoons (10g) baking soda - teaspoon (2g) salt