3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].

+83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either princ.i.p.al or subordinate. A princ.i.p.al clause is sometimes defined as "one that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, it does not hold in cases like the following:--

1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.

2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.

The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are princ.i.p.al clauses.

+84. Cla.s.sification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may be cla.s.sified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.

_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--

1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].

2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].

3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally believed].

4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].

_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.

Thus:--

1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].

2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].

_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be cla.s.sified according to the introductory word.

(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative p.r.o.nouns_: _who, which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].

(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to take_].

(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as _when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where, whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie lives_].

(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because, since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].

_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be cla.s.sified according to the nature of the thought expressed.

(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a fine view].

(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].

(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].

(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].

(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].

(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].

(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].

(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].

(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying clauses.

(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].

(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].

(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive clauses.

+85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an _objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both subject and predicate may have modifiers.

The usual modifiers of the subject are:--

1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].

2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].

3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].

4. Noun or p.r.o.noun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].

5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will open the debate].

6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].

7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].

8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].

The modifiers of the predicate are:--

1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].

2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].

3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an important question].