6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].

7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.

(_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the plural [sheep, deer].

(_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].

(_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].

(_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, news, politics].

8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].

9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by t.i.tles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the t.i.tle or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.

The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.

Harrisons.]

10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].

+24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or p.r.o.noun bears to some other word in the sentence.

Inflection of nouns or p.r.o.nouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.

+25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].

In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls'].

A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the '_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].

Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.

This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: [Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].

Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book].

Names of inanimate objects usually subst.i.tute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].

+26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and p.r.o.nouns to denote s.e.x.

Nouns or p.r.o.nouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.

+27. Person.+--Person is the power of one cla.s.s of p.r.o.nouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the p.r.o.noun is said to be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many p.r.o.nouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.

+28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions of nouns:--

(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.

(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--

1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]

2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of the year].

3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].

4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].

5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the gra.s.s twinkled in the sunshine].

6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of Genoa, discovered America].

(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--

1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].

2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].

3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].

4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New England_].

5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go without delay].

6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].

7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].

8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great _explorer_].

+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+

1. p.r.o.noun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].

2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].

3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the process].

4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].

5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to act_].

6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.

7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].

p.r.o.nOUNS

+30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the p.r.o.noun.