It remains that we notice in the last place what may be called the _theocratic imagery_ of the Hebrew poets; that is, imagery borrowed from the inst.i.tutions of the Mosaic law. The intense loyalty of the Hebrew poets to the Mosaic law has already been noticed. They were its divinely-appointed expositors and defenders, and their whole religious life was moulded by it. No wonder, then, that their writings abound with allusions to its rites and usages. The sweet psalmist of Israel will abide in G.o.d's tabernacle for ever, and trust in the covert of his wings, the literal tabernacle on Zion representing G.o.d's spiritual presence here and his beatific presence hereafter (Psa. 61:4 and elsewhere); he will have his prayer set forth before G.o.d as incense, and the lifting up of his hands as the evening sacrifice (Psa. 141:2); he will be purged with hyssop that he may be clean, and washed that he may be whiter than snow (Psa. 51: 7); he will offer to G.o.d the sacrifice of a broken spirit (Psa. 51:17); the people promise to render to G.o.d the calves of their lips (Hosea 14:2); the vengeance of G.o.d upon Edom is described as "a sacrifice in Bozrah, and a great slaughter in the land of Idumea," in which the Lord's sword shall be filled with the blood of lambs and goats and the fat of the kidneys of rams (Isa. 34: 6); with allusions to the Levitical sprinklings G.o.d promises that he will sprinkle upon his penitent and restored people clean water that they may be clean (Ezek. 36: 25); and with allusion to the sacrificial flocks a.s.sembled at Jerusalem on the occasion of her great festivals, that he will increase them with men like a flock--"as the holy flock, as the flock of Jerusalem in her solemn feasts; so shall the waste cities be filled with flocks of men" (Ezek. 36:37, 38). How full the book of Psalms is of allusions to the solemn songs of the sanctuary with their accompaniment of psaltery and harp, trumpet and cornet, every reader understands. This subject might be expanded indefinitely, but the above hints must suffice.

3. We come now to the _form_ of Hebrew poetry. This is distinguished from the cla.s.sic poetry of Greece and Rome, as well as from all modern poetry by the absence of metrical feet. Its rhythm is that of _clauses_ which correspond to each other in a sort of free parallelism, as was long ago shown by Bishop Lowth in his Prelections on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, the matter of which has been revised and expanded in later treatises. Herein, as elsewhere, Hebrew poetry a.s.serts its originality and independence. Biblical scholars recognize three fundamental forms of parallelism in Hebrew poetry, which will be briefly considered, first separately, and then in their combinations.

The _first_ is the _ant.i.thetic_ form, where two parallel members are contrasted in meaning, a form peculiarly adapted to didactic poetry, and therefore occurring most abundantly in the book of Proverbs. The following are examples of it:

The memory of the just is blessed: But the name of the wicked shall rot (Prov. 10:7);

where, in the original Hebrew, each clause consists of three words. In such an ant.i.thetic parallelism the words of one couplet, at least, must correspond in meaning, as here _memory_ and _name_; while the others are in contrast--_just_ and _wicked_, _is blessed_ and _shall rot_.

Sometimes the two clauses are to be mutually supplied from each other, thus:

A wise son maketh a glad father: But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother (Prov. 10:1);

where the reader understands that a wise son is the joy, and a foolish son the grief of both father and mother.

The _second_ form is the _synonymous_, where the same general thought is repeated in two or more clauses. It is found abundantly in the whole range of Hebrew poetry, but is peculiarly adapted to that which is of a placid and contemplative character. Sometimes the parallel clauses simply repeat the same thought in different words; in other cases there is only a general resemblance. Examples are the following:

He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh: The Lord shall have them in derision. Psa. 2:4.

For thou, Lord, wilt bless the righteous: With favor wilt thou compa.s.s him as with a shield. Psa. 5:12.

Perish the day wherein I was born; And the night in which it was said, There is a man child conceived.

Job 3:3.

Hear the word of the Lord, ye rulers of Sodom: Give ear unto the law of our G.o.d, ye people of Gomorrah. Isa. 1:10.

In the following example we have a _compound_ synonymous couplet:

Give them according to their deeds, According to the wickedness of their endeavors: Give them after the work of their hands, Render to them their desert. Psa. 28:4

Sometimes three or more parallel clauses occur, thus:

When your fear cometh as desolation, And your destruction cometh as a whirlwind; When distress and anguish cometh upon you. Prov. 1:27.

Who forgiveth all thine iniquities; Who healeth all thy diseases; Who redeemeth thy life from destruction; Who crowneth thee with loving-kindness and tender mercies; Who satisfieth thy mouth with good things; Thy youth is renewed like the eagle's. Psa. 103:3-5.

In the preceding example, synonymous parallelism pa.s.ses into _simple enumeration_. So often with a succession of short clauses, or shorter and longer clauses, where the poetry of the Hebrews a.s.sumes the freedom of prose, thus:

Who hath woe?

Who hath sorrow?

Who hath contentions?

Who hath babbling?

Who hath wounds without cause?

Who hath redness of eyes? Prov. 23:39.

A sinful nation; A people laden with iniquity; A seed of evil-doers; Corrupt children: They have forsaken the Lord; They have despised the Holy One of Israel; They have gone away backward. Isa. 1:4.

The parallel clauses are frequently introduced or followed by a single clause, thus:

Blessed is the man Who walketh not in the counsel of the unG.o.dly; And standeth not in the way of sinners; And sitteth not in the seat of scorners. Psa. 1:1.

Hear, O heavens; Give ear, O earth; For the Lord hath spoken. Isa. 1:2.

The _third_ form of parallelism is called _synthetic_ (Greek _synthesis_, _a putting together_), where one clause is necessary to complete the sense of the other, as in the following examples:

Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, Than a stalled ox and hatred therewith. Prov. 15:16.

Every way of a man is right in his own eyes; But the Lord pondereth the hearts. Prov. 21:2.

Whoso curseth his father and his mother, His lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness. Prov. 20:20.

The connection between the two clauses may be that of comparison, cause, effect, etc. Sometimes it is not expressed, but simply implied, as in the following:

A whip for the horse, A bridle for the a.s.s, And a rod for the fool's back. Prov. 26:3.

The _combinations_ of the above forms in Hebrew poetry are exceedingly varied and graceful. Here are examples of two _synonymous_ couplets that are _ant.i.thetic_ to each other:

The ox knoweth his owner, And the a.s.s his master's crib: Israel doth not know, My people doth not consider. Isa. 1:3.

The Lord bringeth the counsel of the heathen to naught; He maketh the devices of the people of none effect.

The counsel of the Lord standeth for ever; The thoughts of his heart to all generations. Psa. 33:10, 11.

In the following example, two _synonymous_ couplets const.i.tute together a _synthetic_ parallelism:

Because they regard not the works of the Lord, Nor the operation of his hands, He shall destroy them, And not build them up. Psa. 28:5.

In the following, three _synthetic_ parallelisms make a _synonymous_ triplet:

For as the heaven is high above the earth, So great is his mercy toward them that fear him: As far as the east is from the west, So far hath he removed our transgressions from us: Like as a father pitieth his children, So the Lord pitieth them that fear him. Psa. 103:11-13.

But our limits will not allow us to pursue this subject farther. The freedom of the Hebrew poet is one of his high prerogatives. He is not a slave to form, but uses form as it suits his purposes. He blends together the different kinds of parallelism as he pleases. Often he breaks through all parallelism to the freedom of prose. But he soon returns again, because this measured rhythm of clauses is to him the natural costume of poetic thought, which always seeks to embody itself in some form of rhythm.

To the form of Hebrew poetry belongs also its _peculiar diction_. To one who reads the Hebrew poets in the original, this is a striking characteristic. He meets with words, and sometimes with grammatical forms, that do not occur in the prose writers. Many of these peculiar words are _Aramean_; that is, they are words current in the Aramean branch of the Shemitic languages. Chap. 14, No. 1. They are to be regarded as _archaisms_--old words that were once common alike to the Hebrew and the kindred Aramean, but which have been dropped out of prose usage in Hebrew. They must not be confounded, as has too often been done, with _true Aramaisms_, that is, Aramean words and forms borrowed by later Hebrew writers from their intercourse with those who spoke Aramean.

4. As it respects the _office_ of Hebrew poetry, it is throughout subservient to the interests of revealed religion. This is implied in what has been already said of the loyalty of the Hebrew poets to the inst.i.tutions of the Theocracy. It follows that the poetry of the Bible is all _sacred_ in its character. It contains no examples of purely secular poetry except here and there a short pa.s.sage which comes in as a part of history; for example, the words of "those that speak in proverbs," Numb. 21:27-30; perhaps also the lament of David over Saul and Jonathan. 2 Sam. 1:19-27. It is certain that the song contained in the forty-fifth psalm and that of the Canticles were received into the canon solely on the ground that they celebrate the mutual love between G.o.d and the covenant people, considered as his bride; or, in New Testament language, between Christ and "the bride, the Lamb's wife."

But sacred poetry has various uses. One of its earliest offices was to celebrate the praises of G.o.d for his interposition in behalf of his covenant people, as in the song of the Israelites at the Red sea, and that of Deborah and Barak. But when David was raised to the throne of Israel, the time had now come for introducing lyric poetry as a permanent part of the sanctuary service. G.o.d accordingly bestowed upon this monarch the needful inward gifts, and placed him in the appropriate outward circ.u.mstances; when at once there gushed forth from his bosom, smit by the spirit of inspiration, that n.o.ble stream of _lyric song_, which the congregation of the faithful immediately consecrated to the public service of the sanctuary, and which, augmented by the contributions of Asaph, the sons of Korah, and other inspired poets, has been the rich inheritance of the church ever since. In the book of Job, sacred poetry occupies itself with the mighty problem of the justice of G.o.d's providential government over men. It is, therefore, essentially _didactic_ in its character. In the Proverbs of Solomon, it becomes didactic in the fullest sense; for here it moves in the sphere of practical life and morals. The book of Ecclesiastes has for its theme the vanity of this world, considered as a satisfying portion of the soul; and this it discusses in a poetic form. Finally, the prophets of the Old Testament exhaust all the wealth of Hebrew poetry in rebuking the sins of the present time, foretelling the mighty judgments of G.o.d upon the wicked, lamenting the present sorrows of Zion, and portraying her future glories in connection with the advent of the promised Messiah. The Hebrew harp--whoever sweeps it, and whether its strains be jubilant or sad, didactic or emotional, is ever consecrated to G.o.d and the cause of righteousness.

(B.) THE SEVERAL POETICAL BOOKS.

I. JOB.

5. The design of the book of Job will best appear if we first take a brief survey of its plan. Job, a man eminent above all others for his piety and uprightness, is accused by Satan as serving G.o.d from mercenary motives. To show the falsehood of this charge, G.o.d permits Satan to take from the patriarch his property and his children, and afterwards to smite him with a loathsome and distressing disease. Thus stripped of every thing that could make life valuable, he still holds fast his integrity, and returns to his wife, who counsels him to "curse G.o.d and die," the discreet and pious answer: "Shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord, and shall we not receive evil?" His three friends, who have come to comfort him, amazed and confounded at the greatness of his calamities, sit down with him in silence for seven days. At last Job opens his mouth with vehement expressions of grief and impatience, and curses the day of his birth. The three friends sharply rebuke him, and in a threefold round of addresses (only that the third time Zophar fails to speak), enter into an earnest controversy with him a.s.suming the false ground that the administration of G.o.d's government over this world is strictly _retributive_, so that special calamity comes only as a punishment for special wickedness, and is therefore itself a proof of such wickedness. They accordingly exhort him to repent of his sins, and seek G.o.d's forgiveness, as the sure means of removing his present misfortunes. Conscious of his integrity, Job, with much warmth and asperity, repels their unjust charges, and refutes their false arguments by an appeal to facts. The ground he takes is that, by some inscrutable plan of G.o.d, calamity comes alike upon good and bad men. He pa.s.sionately beseeches G.o.d to show him why he thus deals with him; and, according as faith or despondency prevails in his soul, he sometimes expresses the hope that he shall come out of his troubles like gold tried in the fire; and then, again, the fear that he shall speedily sink down to the grave under the weight of his sorrows, and nevermore see good. Having put to silence his three friends by an array of facts to which they can make no reply, he freely expresses the belief that the hypocrite's end shall be destruction (chap. 27); shows that the wisdom by which G.o.d governs the world is above man's comprehension, whose true wisdom lies in fearing and obeying his Maker (chap. 28); contrasts his present calamities with his former prosperity (chaps. 29, 30); and closes with a solemn protestation of his integrity (chap. 31).

Elihu, a young man who has. .h.i.therto been a silent witness of the controversy, now takes up the argument on the ground that trouble is sent by G.o.d upon men as a _discipline_, that by it they may be made aware of their errors and infirmities; and that, if they make a right improvement of it, by bearing it with patient submission and looking to G.o.d in penitence and prayer for its removal, it will end in renewed and higher prosperity. To show the unreasonableness of charging upon G.o.d injustice, he dwells at length upon his infinite majesty and greatness.

The special ground of Job's trial, as given in the first two chapters, Elihu could not of course understand. But his general position in regard to human afflictions is right; and it should be carefully noticed that their issue as described by him in the case of a good man--an imperfectly good man under a system of grace--is precisely what happens to Job when he humbles himself before his Maker.

As Elihu's discourse was drawing towards a close, the signs of G.o.d's approach had already began to manifest themselves (chap. 37). Now he addresses Job out of the whirlwind, rebuking him for his presumptuous language, and setting before him His infinite perfections, manifested in the creation and government of the world, as a sufficient proof that to arraign His justice at the bar of human reason is folly and presumption.