All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution in the quant.i.ty of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given, marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented in the cut just named.

In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears smaller. Fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when selecting a cow.

In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size.

In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the hair which then covers them is long, coa.r.s.e, and stiff; and when this hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but will be of less size.

With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others.

M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guenon, divides cows, according to the quant.i.ty which they give, into four cla.s.ses: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and fourth, the bad.

In the FIRST cla.s.s he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the mammary--the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs--and the perinean--that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs--are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on the posterior face of the udder.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MILK-MIRROR [G.]]

Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in the next cla.s.s. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circ.u.mstances in which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics: veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the exterior--as in cut A--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted; milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming zig-zags, under the belly.

To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder, shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair; good const.i.tution, full chest, regular appet.i.te, and great propensity to drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright, sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck.

Cows of this first cla.s.s are very rare. They give, even when small in size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food in sufficient quant.i.ty and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or its equivalent, which they eat.

They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the quant.i.ty of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in nutritive qualities, or deficient in quant.i.ty.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MILK-MIRROR [H.]]

The SECOND cla.s.s is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities.

They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut H. Cut E belongs also to this cla.s.s, in the lower part; but it indicates a cow, which--as the upper mirror, 1, indicates--dries up sooner when again in calf.

These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed, though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first cla.s.s; in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous, though not very large.

It is necessary here, as in the preceding cla.s.s, to distrust cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk.

They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent.

The general characteristics which depend on form and const.i.tution combine, less than in cows of the preceding cla.s.s, the marks of good health and excellent const.i.tution with those of a gentle and feminine look.

Small cows of this cla.s.s give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner favorable to the secretion of milk.

They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts of milk a day.

The THIRD cla.s.s consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular--as in cut K--the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is the largest.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MILK-MIRROR [K.]]

These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached.

Cows of this cla.s.s give, according to size, from three or four to ten quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable circ.u.mstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in calf.

The FOURTH cla.s.s is composed of _bad cows_. As they are commonly in good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large and coa.r.s.e neck and head, and horns large at the base.

The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long, rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder, while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are ordinarily small, as in cut L.

With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day, and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well fed.

Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest, the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth cla.s.s.

Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its originator, it may be safely a.s.serted that the milk-mirror forms an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and long-known marks should be equally regarded.

There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed, only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his offspring.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MILK-MIRROR [L.]]

It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the greatest apt.i.tude to fatten, yet that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of const.i.tution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten.

In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they cost less in the original purchase.

It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones.

Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be brought about.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Crossing and Breeding

The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections,--to a greater extent, at least, than formerly--and it becomes a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions--what are the best breeds, and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock--are now asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they would all study their own interests.

The time is gradually pa.s.sing away when the intelligent practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later, be generally appreciated.

The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his interest to obtain an animal--a calf, for example--that will yield the largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing is certain--and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock.

It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock by neglect and want of proper attention.

How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock, and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control.

We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts, at least, comprising the Eastern and Middle States--the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quant.i.ty they give, than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding, and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to it.

There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly understood. To these attention will now be directed.

The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection is that of _similarity_. It is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents--whether external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased--are transmitted to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five words:--Breed only from the best.

Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this should have regard to every particular--general appearance, length of limb, shape of carca.s.s, development of chest; in cattle, to the size, shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the desirable animal.

Not only should care be exercised to avoid _structural defects_, but especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_; as both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued acquaintance are requisite in order to be a.s.sured of their absence in breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of form or color.

In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malignant tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less violent, and generally of a chronic character.