The triforium, carried round in a curve under the great east window, forms a narrow pa.s.sageway from one side of the choir to the other. This formation, curiously enough, has const.i.tuted quite a feature at Gloucester. It is called the "whispering gallery." There is no evidence that the architect intended it. St. Paul's, in London, affords another similar example.

[Ill.u.s.tration: GLOUCESTER

FROM THE PADDOCK]

The sculptor's art is represented by many tombs of certain merit. There is the tomb erected by Abbot Parker to the memory of Osric, King of Northumberland, who was one of the founders of the monastery, and who died about the eighth century. In the north aisle leading to the Lady Chapel--which by the way, with its square ending appears like an after-thought, extended eastwards, as it were, from the apsidal termination of the choir--is a monument covering the remains of Robert Duke of Normandy, the eldest son of the Conqueror. He was a benefactor to the old abbey. His effigy in coloured bog oak is disposed in a rec.u.mbent att.i.tude on an altar-tomb. There are many others, amongst which that of Dr. Jenner, famous for the introduction of vaccination into general practice, commands great attention. Robert Raikes is also represented. He and the Rev. Thomas Stock, a rector of St. John the Baptist in this city, share the honour of having established the first Sunday school in England, which was held in Gloucester. Some authorities, however, contend that the reverend gentleman was the originator of the Sunday school, though they do not deny that Raikes, through his unwearied exertions, promoted the increase of these inst.i.tutions throughout the kingdom.

But of all the monuments, that erected by the monks of Gloucester to the memory of Edward of Carnarvon deserves the most attention, not only for its beauty, but because it served as the type for the Gothic sculptors to copy during two centuries. The rec.u.mbent effigy is hedged in by a series of elaborately decorated shafts, forming a kind of open-work grille, with pinnacles and niches. Overhead it is covered in with richly ornamented Gothic work.

This shrine, constructed to receive the body of the murdered Edward II., conveyed thither from Berkeley Castle by Abbot Thokey, throughout the greater part of Edward III.'s reign continued to attract vast numbers of pilgrims. Their offerings soon brought in a great revenue, which was spent not on rebuilding the church, but in restoring the surface, in putting new windows in the old walls, and, generally, in adapting the twelfth-century building to the Perpendicular style of the fourteenth century. In this way the original Norman work forms the skeleton to the Perpendicular casing.

In 1541 the Cathedral was separated from the diocese of Worcester by Henry VIII. and made a distinct bishopric.

Besides this magnificent pile, Gloucester possesses four other churches, which deserve some slight notice. There is the Church of St. Mary de Lode, said to contain the remains of Lucius, the first British king. It has an interesting old chancel, and a monument to Bishop Hooper.

St. Mary de Crypt is a cruciform building of the twelfth century, with a beautiful lofty tower. The curfew bell is still rung from the tower of St. Michael, which is said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St. Peter. St. Nicholas, originally Norman, is now an ancient structure of the Early style of English architecture.

Of schools, one was refounded by Henry VIII. for the education of the cathedral choir. Another was established in the same reign by Dame Joan Cooke, and was called the Crypt School, from the fact of its schoolroom adjoining the church of the same name. Sir Thomas Rich, a native of Gloucester, in 1666 founded the Blue-Coat Hospital, much on the same lines as that of Christ's Hospital, recently removed from London to the country.

During the many years that were taken in beautifying the Cathedral, we must not forget that the city was struggling with varying fortune. It might almost be called a royal city, so often was it visited by princes, were it not that Winchester claims that distinction. In the war between Stephen and the Empress Matilda, Gloucester always accorded a welcome to the Empress. Thither she is said to have escaped after the siege of Winchester, carried in a coffin. If not true, the story is well founded.

The city was captured from Henry III. by the barons in 1263. In one of the many Parliaments held at Gloucester, were pa.s.sed, in 1279, the laws connected with the Statute of Quo Warranto, better known as the Statutes of Gloucester.

In 1327 Edward II. was a.s.sa.s.sinated in Berkeley Castle by his keeper, Sir Thomas Gournay, and John de Maltravers, Lord Berkeley. From this time Gloucester seems to have enjoyed comparative peace, though its county was the theatre of several important historical events enacted in its cities of Chichester and Tewkesbury. The latter is especially memorable for the great and decisive battle, in which the Lancastrians were totally defeated, in 1471. On that occasion Margaret of Anjou, her son Prince Edward, and her general, the Duke of Somerset, were taken prisoners by Edward IV. After the battle Prince Edward was murdered and the Duke of Somerset beheaded. In the great contest between Charles I.

and the Parliament, the city of Gloucester, it is true, became an object of importance to the success of the royal cause. The city was, however, successfully defended for the Parliament by Colonel Ma.s.sie, till relieved in 1643 by the Earl of Ess.e.x. In the meantime Chichester was taken by Prince Rupert.

The subject-matter of this city has unconsciously led us to introduce Tewkesbury and Chichester. Having gone so far we cannot close without first drawing attention to the existence of three other cities that prominently stand out in this same county of Gloucesters.h.i.+re. They are Cheltenham, the home of the famous public school; Tewkesbury, where the decisive battle of the Roses was fought; and Bristol, the great port situated near the mouth of the Severn, the river on the banks of which lies this ancient cathedral city of Gloucester.

Hereford

Hereford.

("Doomsday Book.")

On the borders of Wales is Herefords.h.i.+re, and almost in the centre of the county is its ancient capital, Hereford. A Roman station is supposed to have been in the neighbourhood, under the name of Ariconium, which is considered to be identical with the present Kenchester. The present name of Hereford is derived from the pure Saxon. Like Oxford, it had no bridges at first. As the river had to be crossed, the shallowest part was chosen.

This consideration probably determined the site of Hereford to be upon the left bank of the river Wye, and the pa.s.s over it was called by the Saxons, Here-ford, or "Military ford." We glean little information of this place till the seventh century. An episcopal see is stated to have existed in this place before the invasion of Britain by the Saxons. From this uncertainty we arrive at something more definite, which took place in 655. Oswy, then King of Mercia, in that year made Hereford part of the diocese of Lichfield, which already wielded jurisdiction over the whole of the kingdom of Mercia.

A few years later it was decided by a synod held here under the presidency of Theodore, then Archbishop of Canterbury, in 673, to make a division of the diocese of Lichfield. Very naturally Wilford, then bishop of that see, refused to recognise the decree, and for this piece of contumacy was subsequently deprived of part of his diocese. His successor, s.e.xulph, however, was more amenable, and with his consent Hereford was detached from Lichfield and restored to its original independence as a separate diocese. Putta was straightway translated from Rochester See to become the first bishop of Hereford in 680. This instance is one of many such in the history of the Church. The shuffling of dioceses, the enlargement of one at the expense of another, whether from motives of malice or a sense of right distribution, occurs usually in the early years of Christianity in England, and also at the general winding up of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII.

Hereford was by no means the only see that suffered these changes. It was simply a unit in the great policy of welding together the churches of the several kingdoms into one whole, which had never been carried into effect till Theodore of Tarsus came to England. He was a Greek monk little known till the Pope elected to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury. Only three bishops were left in the whole of England; of these two were rivals for the See of York, and the third had bought the See of London. The first thing that Theodore did after his arrival was to travel throughout the country. By consecrating new bishops and creating a thorough organisation, he acquired a complete understanding with the Church. He also inst.i.tuted a system of synods, which he intended should meet annually to discuss the general welfare of the Church. This, however, seems to have fallen into disuse.

In all, Theodore managed to divide England into a matter of fifteen dioceses, through the subdivision of the old dioceses. Truly a great achievement when we remember that the conversion of the English kingdoms mostly depended upon the good-will of their respective kings. Thus it came about that one king in each kingdom had one bishop, generally his chaplain at first, who took his t.i.tle, not from a see, but from the people. He was either bishop of Mercia, or Northumbria, or some other large kingdom. As we have seen in the collision with Wilford, Theodore's policy did not suit every prelate's views. His influence, however, effected the installation of three bishops in Northumbria, four in Mercia, two in East Anglia, and two in Wess.e.x. Kent already had two since 604.

Thus the result was the complete conversion of England, effected by Theodore from about 673 to 688 A.D.

Prior to the eighth century Hereford is known to have been the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, as it is now of Herefords.h.i.+re, which is much reduced in size. From the years 765 to 791 Mercia was governed by King Offa. Apart from his connection with the Cathedral of Hereford, his reign must possess some interest to the collectors of coins. For though the die-sinker's art was practised in England as far back as the Roman occupation, and an indigenous coinage came into existence in the seventh century, it is not till this monarch's reign that genuine English coinage was properly in currency. It appears that Offa had to pay an annual tribute of 365 mancuses in coin to the Pope. As a mancus was equal to 30 pennies, the sum was a considerable one.

In the year 782 an event occurred which laid the foundation of the Cathedral. From Marden, the original place of sepulture, the body of Ethelbert, King of the East Angles (who, by the way, is not to be confounded with Ethelbert of Kent, who welcomed St. Augustine), was removed to Hereford. He had been treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the Queen of Mercia. In expiation of the murder King Offa, with munificent donations, enabled a n.o.bleman called Milfride, a viceroy under Egbert, to found the Cathedral about 825. The building was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Ethelbert. It fell into decay in less than two centuries and necessitated a rebuilding during the prelacy of Bishop Athelstan, between 1012 and 1015. It was burnt by the Welsh in 1055, and remained in ruins till 1079, when the first Norman bishop, Robert of Lorraine, was appointed to the See.

He commenced a new edifice on the lines of Aken, now Aix-la-Chapelle. It was carried on, with the exception of the tower left to be erected by Bishop Giles de Braos in the following century, by Bishop Raynelm, in 1107, and eventually completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betum.

[Ill.u.s.tration: HEREFORD

THE NORTH TRANSEPT]

The plan is the usual cross. A lofty tower rises from the intersection, and was formerly surmounted by a spire, taken down for safety's sake.

The screen and reredos, the pillars, the arches of naves, and the north and south arches of the choir belong to the Norman period. The Early English claims the triforium, the Lady Chapel, clerestory, and the stone vaulting. The north transept is by Bishop Aquablanca, 1245-1268, whilst the south-east transept dates from the Late Decorated style.

For over 450 years a number of additions and restorations have afforded every facility for the skill of the architect, not always happily taken advantage of. The great western tower unfortunately fell down in 1786, and caused considerable damage to the west front and adjacent work. Mr.

Wyatt, during modern restorations, in 1842 and 1863, rebuilt the tower.

The west front, soon after its misfortune, was restored in a style different from the original. The whole exterior of this edifice presents a curious variety of architectural style. This capitulation of bishops and dates is possibly dry reading, but it is absolutely necessary to determine the date of the different erections and restorations, and their successive styles of architecture.

Near the choir was the shrine of St. Ethelbert, which was destroyed during the Commonwealth of Cromwell. Another attraction to the pilgrims was the tomb erected to the memory of Bishop Cantelupe, who died in 1282. His heart was brought to Hereford and buried in the north transept of the Cathedral, and he was canonised in 1310. The pilgrims resorted to this place, as it was reputed that no less than four hundred miracles had been performed there. In consequence of this the succeeding bishops altered the quarterings of their ancient arms, which were those of St. Ethelbert, and a.s.sumed the paternal coat of Cantelupe. This change const.i.tutes the present arms of the bishopric.

Amongst many other memorials is one to Bishop Aquablanca. A plain marble tablet was also erected to the memory of John Philips, a well-known author of poems ent.i.tled "The Splendid s.h.i.+lling," and "Cyder."

Perhaps the most interesting item, as well as the most curious of all the old maps, is the "Mappa Mundi," preserved in the south choir aisle.

It was compiled somewhere about 1275 to 1300, by a monk of Lincoln. How it ever came to Hereford appears to be an enigma. The most likely solution is that the monk may have been transferred from Lincoln to this see.

The "Hereford Map," as it is called, is a great picture, more to be cla.s.sed as a grotesque work of art than a valuable aid to geography. It is, at least, a gigantic attempt to represent the whole world, with the introduction of the main features, the people, industries, and products of each country. It is one ma.s.s of legendary figures, and the farther we get from England, which is hardly recognisable, the more grotesque and improbable become the monsters. The Minotaurs and Gog-Magog of Tartary, the dog-faced, the horse-footed, and flap-eared freaks of nature of the far east, together with the one-legged, one-eyed, four-eyed, headless, and hermaphrodite tribes who fringe the Torrid Zone, give us an interesting idea of the imposition by travellers upon the minds of the people of that period, the thirteenth century. Even the fishes, supposed to be peculiar to each sea, are carefully depicted. Truly it is a wonderful work of imagination, not the less to be respected for that, and quite alone deserves a journey to Hereford.

An epitome of the chief historical events of the city will be a sufficient guide to its status. Except cider making, it has no industries of special note.

To the fortifications erected in the time of Athelstan, and nearly perfected in Leland's time, was added a castle by Edward the Elder. In 1055, two miles from this place, Griffith the Prince of Wales defeated Ralph Earl of Hereford; and the Welsh, having thus taken the city, spent their time in reducing it to a heap of ruins. Harold, afterwards king, attacked and defeated the Welsh, and repaired and enlarged the fortifications in view of further invasions. In the conflicts between Stephen and the Empress Maud, Hereford was successfully defended for the latter by Milo, to be reduced by the King in 1141. At the commencement of the parliamentary war, Hereford was garrisoned for the King, but surrendered, without a blow being struck, to the army of Sir William Waller in 1643. On the retreat of this knight the Royalists occupied it, and under the governors.h.i.+p of Barnabas Scudamore, Esquire, made a stubborn resistance against the Scots, under the Earl of Leven, and obliged them to raise the siege.

The inhabitants, at the Restoration, for their loyalty to the royal cause, received from Charles II. a new charter with extended privileges, and new heraldic arms testifying to their fidelity to the House of Stuart. Previous to this Charles I. had been generous enough to reward the many sacrifices and sufferings of the loyal citizens by granting the city its motto of

Invictae fidelitatis praemium.

Lincoln

Lincolia.

("Doomsday Book.")

The commercial importance of Lincoln, whatever it may be now, was at one time considerable. At the time of the Norman survey it commanded sufficient attention to cause the entry of the city in the "Doomsday Book" as one of the leading centres of commerce. This happy state was continued, or rather increased, by the famous Ordinance of the Staple in the reign of Edward III. He was an ambitious monarch, and desired to become master of France. If we recall the battles of Cressy and Poitiers, we can readily understand what an enormous expenditure would be required for the proper conduct of the war. By some means or other the English revenues had to be found. This was met to a great extent by the Ordinance of the Wool Staple, enacted by Edward III., who, besides waging war in France, was keen on the extension of foreign trade. By charters granted to merchants of Gascony, who imported wine and other commodities, and by giving special protection to the Flemish weavers in England, the King enhanced the prospects of trade. But the most important of all his commercial projects was, as we have said, his scheme, finally declared in 1353, by which a staple for English exports was established under the direct control of the Crown. Thus the monopoly of wool, which accrued so advantageously to Bruges and other cities on the Continent, and had become unbearable, was in 1353 transferred to England. For the exclusive sale of wool ten English towns were chosen.

They were situated within easy distance of the coast, or the town was in connection with a convenient port. Of these ten towns with corresponding ports, Lincoln with Boston was chosen as a staple town for wool. This with other sources of trade, such as the staple of lead and leather, flourished in Lincoln from Edward III.'s time till the commencement of the eighteenth century, when the trade of the town declined. Through the several plagues prevalent in the fourteenth century, such as the black death and other epidemics similar in death-dealing if not in character at that time, especially about the year 1390, many towns in England were much decayed. Except London, York, Bristol, Coventry, and Plymouth, the afflicted towns did not regain the population they enjoyed in the fourteenth century till the Tudor period, and some, notably Sarum and Leicester, not until late in the reign of Elizabeth. The decline of Lincoln, though progressive, in a way appears to have been truly a gradual decay, and more terrible in its imperceptible undermining than any knock-down blow, for it never recovered its old trade prosperity; whilst Norwich, which before the plagues was next to London, bore relatively and even greater and sharper evidence of the terrible visitation, yet managed somehow to hark back in a measure to days of its former glory. The old saying which ran "Lincoln was, London is, York shall be" indicates, far more than anything else, the change of Lincoln's fortunes. Whatever its shortcomings may be, Lincoln possesses a most interesting record of antiquity. Its minster is truly a gem, for it is not only the earliest example of a pure Gothic building in Europe, but presents a delightful study of every kind of style, from the early Norman down to the Late Decorated.

Of the many characteristics of this interesting edifice--the foundation of Remigius--we will note the chief. The building material consists of the oolite and calcareous stone of Lincoln Heath and Haydor, the surface of which, when worked upon with tools, appears to become quite hardened.