3. Jean Deshayes, "Greek Technology," in Maurice Daumas, ed., A History of Technology and Invention: Progress Through the Ages A History of Technology and Invention: Progress Through the Ages, trans. Eileen B. Hennessy, New York, 1970 (henceforth referred to as Daumas), vol. I, pp. 187, 196; R. J. Forbes and E. J. Dijksterhuis, A History of Science and Technology A History of Science and Technology, vol. I, Ancient Times to the Seventeenth Century Ancient Times to the Seventeenth Century, Harmondsworth, 1963 (henceforth referred to as Forbes and Dijksterhuis), pp. 6768; L. Sprague de Camp, The Ancient Engineers The Ancient Engineers, New York, 1963, pp. 7071.

4. De Camp, Ancient Engineers Ancient Engineers, p. 141.

5. T. K. Derry and Trevor I. Williams, A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900, Oxford, 1960 (henceforth referred to as Derry and Williams), pp. 12021; Georges Contenau, "Mesopotamia and the Neighboring Countries," in Daumas, I, p. 136. 1900, Oxford, 1960 (henceforth referred to as Derry and Williams), pp. 12021; Georges Contenau, "Mesopotamia and the Neighboring Countries," in Daumas, I, p. 136.

6. Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 72.

7. De Camp, Ancient Engineers Ancient Engineers, pp. 3940, 43, 92, 93; B. Gille, History of Techniques History of Techniques, I, pp. 25758.

8. B. Gille, History of Techniques History of Techniques, I, p. 264.

9. T. C. Lethbridge, "Shipbuilding," in Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall, and Trevor I. Williams, eds., A History of Technology A History of Technology, Oxford, 19541959, 1978 (henceforth referred to as Singer), vol. II, The Mediterranean Civilizations and the Middle Ages, 700 B.C. to A.D. 1500 The Mediterranean Civilizations and the Middle Ages, 700 B.C. to A.D. 1500, p. 564.

10. Homer, Odyssey Odyssey, bk. 5, lines 24451.

11. Homer, Odyssey Odyssey, bk. 15, line 403, cited in Sabatino Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians The World of the Phoenicians, New York, 1965, p. 87.

12. M. I. Finley, "Technical Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World," Economic History Review Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 18 (1965), p. 32.

13. Deshayes, "Greek Technology," in Daumas, I, p. 191; J. G. Landels, Engineering in the Ancient World Engineering in the Ancient World, Berkeley, Calif., 1978, p. 59; Donald Hill, A History of Engineering in Cla.s.sical and Medieval Times A History of Engineering in Cla.s.sical and Medieval Times, La Salle, III., 1984, pp. 13233, citing A. G. Drachmann, The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, Madison, Wis., 1963, p. 154.

14. Landels, Engineering Engineering, p. 76; Abbott Payson Usher, A History of Mechanical Inventions A History of Mechanical Inventions, Boston, 1959 (first pub. in 1929), pp. 13436.

15. A. J. Turner, Astrolabes; Astrolabe-Related Instruments Astrolabes; Astrolabe-Related Instruments, Rockford, Ill., 1985; J. D. North, "The Astrolabe," Scientific American Scientific American 230 (1974), pp. 96106. A far more complex device dating from the first century 230 (1974), pp. 96106. A far more complex device dating from the first century B.C. B.C. was found off the island of Antikythera early in the twentieth century and identified by Derek de Solla Price as an elaborate astronomical calendar. Price pointed out that the device exploded the myth that the Greeks were weak in technology: "The technology was there...It has just not survived like the great marble buildings and the constantly recopied literary works." (Derek de Solla Price, was found off the island of Antikythera early in the twentieth century and identified by Derek de Solla Price as an elaborate astronomical calendar. Price pointed out that the device exploded the myth that the Greeks were weak in technology: "The technology was there...It has just not survived like the great marble buildings and the constantly recopied literary works." (Derek de Solla Price, Science Since Babylon Science Since Babylon, New Haven, 1976, p. 48.) 16. Paul-Marie Duval, "The Roman Contribution to Technology," in Daumas, I, pp. 24546; E. M. Jope, "Agricultural Implements," in Singer, II, p. 86; R. Z. Patterson, "Spinning and Weaving," in Singer, II, p. 193.

17. De Camp, Ancient Engineers Ancient Engineers, p. 227; Landels, Engineering Engineering, p. 15; R. J. Forbes, "Food and Drink," in Singer, II, p. 117; Deshayes, "Greek Technology," in Daumas, I, p. 211; Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 24546.

18. Derry and Williams, pp. 12324; Deshayes, "Greek Technology," in Daumas, I, pp. 19899; C. N. Bromehead, "Mining and Quarrying to the Seventeenth Century," in Singer, II, pp. 37.

19. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 24243.

20. J. P. Wild, Textile Manufacture in the Northern Roman Provinces Textile Manufacture in the Northern Roman Provinces, Cambridge, 1970, pp. 3536, 6172.

21. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, p. 232.

22. Ibid., pp. 219, 226; R. J. Forbes, "Hydraulic Engineering and Sanitation," in Singer, II, pp. 67071.

23. Joseph Gies, Bridges and Men Bridges and Men, New York, 1963, pp. 811.

24. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 247, 223, 22829.

25. Ibid., p. 224; R. G. Goodchild, "Roads and Land Travel, with a Section on Harbours, Docks, and Lighthouses," in Singer, II, pp. 500514.

26. Landels, Engineering Engineering, pp. 13642; Lionel Ca.s.son, "Odysseus' Boat (Od. V, 24457)," American Journal of Philology American Journal of Philology 85 (1964), pp. 8690; Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 23839; Derry and Williams, p. 197. 85 (1964), pp. 8690; Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 23839; Derry and Williams, p. 197.

27. Landels, Engineering Engineering, pp. 15758; Lynn White, Jr., Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays, Berkeley, Calif., 1978, pp. 25560. Lionel Ca.s.son lists five types of ancient fore-and-aft sail: the triangular lateen of the Mediterranean; the quadrilateral ("Arab") lateen; the spritsail; the gaff-headed sail; the lugsail. All were apparently limited to small craft. (Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, Princeton, N.J., 1971, p. 243.) 28. Landels, Engineering Engineering, pp. 1079.

29. Derry and Williams, p. 58.

30. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, p. 245.

31. Finley, "Technical Innovation," p. 30; Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 81.

32. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, pp. 25152; B. Gille, History of Techniques History of Techniques, I, pp. 42728.

33. Duval, "Roman Contribution," in Daumas, I, p. 254.

34. Derry and Williams, p. 61; Kenneth Kilby, The Cooper and His Trade The Cooper and His Trade, London, 1971, p. 95.

35. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, vol. IV, pt. 2, pp. 31819.

36. Lefebvre des Noettes, L'Attelage et le cheval de selle L'Attelage et le cheval de selle, p. 5.

37. Terry S. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel, Baltimore, 1983, p. 14; Derry and Williams, pp. 25052; R. J. Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, pp. 590600; Andre Haudricourt and Maurice Daumas, "The First Stages in the Utilization of Natural Power," in Daumas, I, pp. 1089.

38. Derry and Williams, p. 32.

39. Vitruvius, De architectura De architectura, 10.1.6, cited in T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 30.

40. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 11.

41. Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 76; T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 31.

42. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 225.

43. Seneca, On Mercy On Mercy, VII, 25, 24, cited in De Camp, Ancient Engineers Ancient Engineers, p. 254.

44. William D. Phillips, Jr., Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade, Minneapolis, 1985, pp. 2223.

45. Finley, "Technical Innovation," p. 37.

46. Ibid., p. 29.

3: THE NOT SO DARK AGES: A.D. A.D. 500900 500900 1. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. II, p. 9.

2. Henri Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne Mohammed and Charlemagne, trans. Bernard Miall, New York, 1964 (first pub. in 1939), p. 140.

3. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 12.

4. Derry and Williams, p. 91.

5. R. J. Forbes, "Metallurgy," in Singer, II, p. 62.

6. White, "Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages," Speculum Speculum 15 (1940), p. 151. 15 (1940), p. 151.

7. Carlo Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, New York, 1980, p. 169.

8. Georges Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century, trans. Howard B. Clarke, Ithaca, N.Y., 1974, pp. 13, 29.

9. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, p. 113.

10. Duby, Early Growth Early Growth, p. 3.

11. Richard Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 6001600 The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 6001600, London, 1980, p. 97.

12. Duby, Early Growth Early Growth, pp. 89.

13. Robert S. Lopez, The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages, 9501350 The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages, 9501350, Cambridge, 1976, pp. 1617.

14. Richard Hodges and David Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe: Archaeology and the Pirenne Thesis Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe: Archaeology and the Pirenne Thesis, Ithaca, N.Y., 1983, pp. 92101.

15. Gustave Milne and Damian Goodburn, "The Early Medieval Port of London, A.D. A.D. 7001200," 7001200," Antiquity Antiquity 64 (1990), pp. 62936. 64 (1990), pp. 62936.

16. David Hill, David Barrett, Keith Maude, Julia Warburton, and Margaret Worthington, "Quentovic Defined," Antiquity Antiquity 64 (1990), pp. 5158. 64 (1990), pp. 5158.

17. Frances and Joseph Gies, Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages, New York, 1987, pp. 4546.

18. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, p. 56.

19. Ibid., p. 61.

20. Albert C. Leighton, Transport and Communication in Early Medieval Europe, A.D. 5001100 Transport and Communication in Early Medieval Europe, A.D. 5001100, Newton Abbot, 1971, pp. 10812.

21. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, p. 63.

22. Frances and Joseph Gies, Life in a Medieval Village Life in a Medieval Village, New York, 1990, p. 59.

23. The Rule of St. Benedict The Rule of St. Benedict, cited in Ovitt, Restoration of Perfection Restoration of Perfection, p. 103.

24. Ibid., p. 104.

25. Gregory of Tours, The History of the Franks The History of the Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe, Harmondsworth, 1974, ch. III, sect. 19, p. 182.

26. Gregory of Tours, Lives of the Fathers (Liber vitae patrum) Lives of the Fathers (Liber vitae patrum), cited in Philip A. Rahtz and Donald Bullough, "The Parts of an Anglo-Saxon Mill," Anglo-Saxon England Anglo-Saxon England 6 (1977), p. 20. 6 (1977), p. 20.

27. Katherine Fischer Drew, ed. and trans., The Laws of the Salian Franks The Laws of the Salian Franks, Philadelphia, 1991, p. 85.

28. Katherine Fischer Drew, ed. and trans., The Lombard Laws The Lombard Laws, Philadelphia, 1973, pp. 7677.

29. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 49; Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, pp. 60713.

30. Georges Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West, trans. Cynthia Postan, Columbia, S.C., 1968, pp. 1617.

31. Ibid., p. 17.

32. Richard Holt, The Mills of Medieval England The Mills of Medieval England, London, 1988, p. 123.

33. Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis Admonitio generalis, cited in Robert Latouche, The Birth of Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages The Birth of Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages, trans. E. M. Wilkinson, New York, 1961, p. 176.

34. Gregory of Tours, History History, ch. IX, sect. 38, p. 525.

35. David Herlihy, Opera Muliebria: Women and Work in Medieval Europe Opera Muliebria: Women and Work in Medieval Europe, Philadelphia, 1990, pp. 4243.

36. David Herlihy, ed., Medieval Culture and Society Medieval Culture and Society, New York, 1968, p. 48.

37. Herlihy, Opera Muliebria Opera Muliebria, pp. 7581; Walter Endrei, L'Evolution des techniques du filage et du tissage du Moyen Age a la revolution industrielle L'Evolution des techniques du filage et du tissage du Moyen Age a la revolution industrielle, trans. from the Hungarian by Joseph Tackacs, Paris, 1968, pp. 3031.

38. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, vol. I, pp. 18586.

39. Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne Two Lives of Charlemagne, trans. Lewis Thorpe, Harmondsworth, 1979, p. 147.

40. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, p. 12.

41. Wild, Textile Manufacture Textile Manufacture, pp. 3536.

42. Herlihy, Opera Muliebria Opera Muliebria, p. 80.

43. Wild, Textile Manufacture Textile Manufacture, pp. 6168; Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 2425; Marta Hoffmann, The Warp-weighted Loom: Studies in the History and Technique of an Ancient Implement The Warp-weighted Loom: Studies in the History and Technique of an Ancient Implement, Oslo, 1964.

44. Wild, Textile Manufacture Textile Manufacture, pp. 2829; Patterson, "Spinning and Weaving," in Singer, II, p. 196.

45. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, pp. 138.

46. Bernard S. Bachrach, "Charles Martel, Mounted Shock Combat, the Stirrup, and Feudal Origins," Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 7 (1970), pp. 4776; Bernard S. Bachrach, 7 (1970), pp. 4776; Bernard S. Bachrach, Merovingian Military Organization, 481751 Merovingian Military Organization, 481751, Minneapolis, 1972, pp. 11328; P. H. Sawyer and R. H. Hilton, "Technical Determinism: The Stirrup and the Plough," review of White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, in Past and Present Past and Present 24 (1963), pp. 9095; Frances Gies, 24 (1963), pp. 9095; Frances Gies, The Knight in History The Knight in History, New York, 1984, pp. 912.

47. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, pp. 1424; A. D. H. Bivar, "Cavalry Equipment and Tactics on the Euphrates Frontier," Dumbarton Oaks Papers Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26 (1979), pp. 27391; A. D. H. Bivar, "The Stirrup and Its Origins," 26 (1979), pp. 27391; A. D. H. Bivar, "The Stirrup and Its Origins," Oriental Art Oriental Art, n.s. 1 (1955), pp. 6165.

48. Bachrach, "Charles Martel," pp. 5960.

49. David C. Douglas, William the Conqueror William the Conqueror, Berkeley, Calif., 1967, p. 202.

50. Leighton, Transport and Communication Transport and Communication, pp. 1068.

51. Translation adapted from Einhard and Notker, Two Lives of Charlemagne Two Lives of Charlemagne, pp. 16364, and Bachrach, "Charles Martel," p. 61.

52. Philippe Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, trans. Michael Jones, London, 1984, p. 58.

53. Jean de Colmieu, Vie de Jean de Warneton Vie de Jean de Warneton, cited in Sidney Toy, The Castles of Great Britain The Castles of Great Britain, London, 1953, pp. 4445.

54. Lambert of Ardres, Historia comitum Ghisnensium Historia comitum Ghisnensium, in Monumenta Germaniae historica scriptores Monumenta Germaniae historica scriptores, ed. G. H. Pertz et al., Hanover, 18261913, vol. XXIV, ch. 127, p. 624.

55. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, vol. V, Chemistry and Chemical Technology Chemistry and Chemical Technology, pt. 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic, pp. 7389; Alex Roland, "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium, 6791204," Technology and Culture Technology and Culture 33 (1992), pp. 65579; 33 (1992), pp. 65579; The Chronicle of Theophanes The Chronicle of Theophanes, trans. Harry Turtledove, Philadelphia, 1982, pp. 8889.

56. Roland Bechmann, Trees and Man: The Forest in the Middle Ages Trees and Man: The Forest in the Middle Ages, trans. Katharyn Dunham, New York, 1990, p. 152; John Hooper Harvey, Mediaeval Craftsmen Mediaeval Craftsmen, London, 1975.

57. Michael Swanton, ed., Anglo-Saxon Prose Anglo-Saxon Prose, London, 1975, p. 113.

58. Bertrand Gille, "The Transformation of Raw Materials," in Daumas, I, pp. 49394; David W. Crossley, "Medieval Iron Smelting," in Crossley, ed., Medieval Industry Medieval Industry (Research Report 40, Council for British Archaeology), London, 1981, pp. 3334; Jane Geddes, "Iron," in John W. Blair and Nigel Ramsay, eds., (Research Report 40, Council for British Archaeology), London, 1981, pp. 3334; Jane Geddes, "Iron," in John W. Blair and Nigel Ramsay, eds., English Medieval Industries English Medieval Industries, London, 1990, pp. 16873.