76. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, p. 145.

77. Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, pp. 79, 99, 92; Hart, World of Leonardo da Vinci World of Leonardo da Vinci, p. 273.

78. Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, p. 197.

79. B. Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 652.

80. Ladislao Reti, "Francesco di Giorgio Martini's Treatise on Engineering and Its Plagiarists," Technology and Culture Technology and Culture 4 (1963), pp. 28798. Leonardo's own concern over plagiarism may have contributed to the obscurity into which his work sank so strangely and for so long. (Some writers have suggested that the famous "mirror writing" in which the notebooks are composed was a precaution against plagiarism, but the conjecture seems dubious.) Italian writers were more sensitive to the problem than their German peers, who regarded texts, drawings, and ideas as public property from the moment they appeared; for lack of patent protection, Gutenberg died in poverty. (Hall, "Der Meister," p. 55.) 4 (1963), pp. 28798. Leonardo's own concern over plagiarism may have contributed to the obscurity into which his work sank so strangely and for so long. (Some writers have suggested that the famous "mirror writing" in which the notebooks are composed was a precaution against plagiarism, but the conjecture seems dubious.) Italian writers were more sensitive to the problem than their German peers, who regarded texts, drawings, and ideas as public property from the moment they appeared; for lack of patent protection, Gutenberg died in poverty. (Hall, "Der Meister," p. 55.) 81. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, pp. 18283.

82. B. Gille, "Engineers and Technicians of the Renaissance," in Daumas, II, p. 45.

83. Ibid., p. 42.

84. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 49.

85. Derry and Williams, pp. 25556.

86. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 69.

87. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, vol. IV, pt. 2, p. 414.

88. Bertrand Gille, "Techniques of Acquisition," in Daumas, II, pp. 6668.

89. Derry and Williams, p. 129.

90. E. M. Jope, "Vehicles and Harness," in Singer, II, p. 548; B. Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 655.

91. B. Gille, "Techniques of Acquisition," in Daumas, II, p. 76.

92. Gale, Iron and Steel Iron and Steel, pp. 1920.

93. Ibid., pp. 2122.

94. A. R. Hall, "Early Modern Technology," p. 93; Bertrand Gille, "Transformation of Matter," in Daumas, II, pp. 7677.

95. Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, pp. 12526.

96. A. R. Hall, "Early Modern Technology," p. 93.

97. Duby, Rural Economy Rural Economy, p. 302.

98. B. Gille, "Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries in the Western World," in Daumas, II, p. 14.

99. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 99103.

100. Ibid., pp. 1034.

101. Ibid., pp. 12829.

102. Ibid., pp. 12930.

103. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton Industry Italian Cotton Industry, pp. 13132, 13840.

104. Ibid., pp. 14244, 15458, 16162.

105. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders, p. 172.

106. Prager and Scaglia, Mariano Taccola Mariano Taccola, pp. 9293.

107. B. Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 657; Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 142; Paul Gille, "Sea and River Transportation," in Daumas, II, p. 423.

108. Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, pp. 12829.

109. Mesnages, "Building of Clocks," in Daumas, II, pp. 295300.

110. Cipolla, European Culture European Culture, pp. 12324.

111. Derry and Williams, p. 227; Mesnages, "Building of Clocks," in Daumas, II, pp. 29899.

112. Usher, History of Mechanical Inventions History of Mechanical Inventions, p. 209.

113. P. Gille, "Military Techniques," in Daumas, II, pp. 47475.

114. Curt S. Gutkind, Cosimo de' Medici, Pater Patriae, 13891464 Cosimo de' Medici, Pater Patriae, 13891464, Oxford, 1938, pp. 23536.

115. Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 142; Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, p. 129.

116. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 216.

117. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, p. 176.

118. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 218.

119. Morison, European Discovery: The Northern Voyages European Discovery: The Northern Voyages, p. 115.

120. Ibid., p. 124.

121. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, pp. 21721.

122. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders, pp. 4142.

123. Derry and Williams, pp. 2034.

124. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders, p. 47.

125. Phillips, Medieval Expansion of Europe Medieval Expansion of Europe, p. 230.

126. Morison, European Discovery: The Southern Voyages European Discovery: The Southern Voyages, p. 56.

127. Not all scholars agree about the value of medieval navigational instruments. Derek de Solla Price went so far as to a.s.sert that "no good navigator really believed instruments until about the late eighteenth century." ("Proto-Astrolabes, Proto-Clocks, and Proto-Calculators: The Point of Origin of High Mechanical Technology," in Schmant-Besserat, Early Technologies Early Technologies, pp. 4758.) 128. Calder, Leonardo Leonardo, p. 51.

129. Phillips, Medieval Expansion of Europe Medieval Expansion of Europe, p. 231.

130. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 215.

131. Luisa Cogliati Arano, The Medieval Health Handbook, Tacuinum sanitatis The Medieval Health Handbook, Tacuinum sanitatis, trans. Oscar Ratti and Adele Westbrook, New York, 1976.

132. Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade Medieval Trade, p. 108.

133. Ibid., pp. 10814; Frances...o...b..lducci Pegolotti, La pratica della mercatura La pratica della mercatura, ed. Allan Evans. Cambridge, Ma.s.s., 1936.

134. Anthony Bryer, "Europe and the Wider World to the Fifteenth Century," in Douglas Johnson, ed., The Making of the Modern World The Making of the Modern World, vol. I, Europe Discovers the World Europe Discovers the World, London, 1971, p. 58.

135. Cipolla, European Culture European Culture, pp. 99101.

136. Morison, European Discovery: The Northern Voyages European Discovery: The Northern Voyages, p. 160.

137. B. Gille, "Techniques of Acquisition," in Daumas, II, p. 61.

138. Phillips, Medieval Expansion of Europe Medieval Expansion of Europe, p. 244.

139. Ibid., p. 245.

140. Jones, History of the Vikings History of the Vikings, p. 308.

141. Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th18th Century Civilization and Capitalism, 15th18th Century, vol. I, The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible, trans. Sian Reynolds, New York, 1981, p. 407.

142. Reay Tannahill, Food in History Food in History, New York, 1973, pp. 24142.

143. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times Slavery from Roman Times, p. 176.

144. Morison, European Discovery: The Southern Voyages European Discovery: The Southern Voyages, pp. 9596.

145. Cardwell, Turning Points Turning Points, p. 6.

146. Needham, "Chinese Priorities in Cast Iron Metallurgy," p. 402.

147. Timo Myllyntaus, "The Transfer of Electrical Technology to Finland, 18701930," Technology and Culture Technology and Culture 32 (1991), pp. 29394. 32 (1991), pp. 29394.

148. Cardwell, Turning Points Turning Points, p. 1.

149. Cipolla, European Culture European Culture, p. 16.

150. Ibid., p. 18.

151. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, pp. 9697.

152. B. Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 649.

153. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 96.

154. Price, "Automata," p. 21.

155. Dales, Scientific Achievement Scientific Achievement, p. 176.

156. Bertrand Gille, "Evolution of the Technical Civilization," in Daumas, II, p. 135.

157. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, p. 112.

158. Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, p. x.

159. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, p. 111.

160. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders, pp. 21832.

161. Melvin Kranzberg, "Technology and History: Kranzberg's Laws," Technology and Culture Technology and Culture 27 (1986), p. 545. Kranzberg explains his paradoxical First Law by elaborating: "Technology's interaction with the social ecology is such that technical developments frequently have environmental, social, and human consequences that go far beyond the immediate purposes of the technical devices and practices themselves, and the same technology can have quite different results when introduced into different contexts or under different circ.u.mstances." 27 (1986), p. 545. Kranzberg explains his paradoxical First Law by elaborating: "Technology's interaction with the social ecology is such that technical developments frequently have environmental, social, and human consequences that go far beyond the immediate purposes of the technical devices and practices themselves, and the same technology can have quite different results when introduced into different contexts or under different circ.u.mstances."

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