29 Quotation: Dzwonkowski, Quotation: Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 94. On Zhmerynka, see Stroski, Represje Represje, 225.

30 Quotation: Dzwonkowski, Quotation: Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 244. See also Stroski, Represje Represje, 235; and Iwanow, Stalinizm Stalinizm, 153.

31 On Koszewicz, the undergarments, and the message, see Dzwonkowski, On Koszewicz, the undergarments, and the message, see Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 90, 101, 147.

32 On autumn 1937 and the orphanages, see Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 26; Kupczak, On autumn 1937 and the orphanages, see Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 26; Kupczak, Polacy Polacy, 327, 329; and Jansen, Executioner Executioner, 97. On Piwiski and Paszkiewicz, see Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 151, 168.

33 On Sobolewska, see Dzwonkowski, On Sobolewska, see Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 215-219, at 219.

34 Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 30; Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 591; Werth, Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 30; Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 591; Werth, Terreur Terreur, 294, 470.

35 On the sentencing of 100 and 138 people, see Stroski, On the sentencing of 100 and 138 people, see Stroski, Represje Represje, 228.

36 For the figure 111,091, see Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 32. For the estimate of eighty-five thousand executions of Soviet Poles, see Petrov, "Polish Operation," 171. Jansen, For the figure 111,091, see Petrov, "Pol'skaia operatsiia," 32. For the estimate of eighty-five thousand executions of Soviet Poles, see Petrov, "Polish Operation," 171. Jansen, Executioner Executioner, 99, draws a similar conclusion. Naumov estimates the Polish dead at 95,000; see NKVD NKVD, 299. See also Schlogel, Terror Terror, 636.

37 Compare Morris, "Polish Terror," 762, whose calculations are almost identical. Compare Morris, "Polish Terror," 762, whose calculations are almost identical.

38 For comparative arrest numbers, see Khaustov, "Deiatel'nost," 316. Here and elsewhere, remarks about the weakness of the Polish intelligence presence in 1937 and 1938 are based upon weeks of review of the pertinent files of the Second Department of the Polish General Staff in the Polish military archives (the Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW). See Snyder, For comparative arrest numbers, see Khaustov, "Deiatel'nost," 316. Here and elsewhere, remarks about the weakness of the Polish intelligence presence in 1937 and 1938 are based upon weeks of review of the pertinent files of the Second Department of the Polish General Staff in the Polish military archives (the Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW). See Snyder, Sketches Sketches, 83-112, for a more detailed discussion and a range of archival citations. I also discuss there the question of the harm the Terror did to the Soviet security position.

39 In the Caucasus, smaller numbers of people were also forcibly transferred; see Baberowski, In the Caucasus, smaller numbers of people were also forcibly transferred; see Baberowski, Feind Feind, 771-772. On the killing of 20,474 people, see Kuromiya, "Asian Nexus," 13. See also Gelb, "Koreans."

40 Quotation: Evans, Quotation: Evans, Power Power, 357. On the German action, see Order 00439 (55,005 sentences, 41,989 death sentences). See also Schlogel, Terror Terror, 628.

41 Khlevniuk, Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 147. I am citing the figures in Binner, "S etoj," 207. Martin gives 386,798 deaths under Order 00447; see "Origins," 855.

42 Soviet Ukraine represented twenty-two percent of the population and saw twenty-seven percent of the convictions; see Gregory, Soviet Ukraine represented twenty-two percent of the population and saw twenty-seven percent of the convictions; see Gregory, Terror Terror, 265. For the 123,421 death sentences, see Nikol's'kyi, Represyvna Represyvna, 402; at 340 are the national proportions of those arrested during 1937-1938 in Soviet Ukraine: Ukrainians 53.2 percent (78.2 percent of population), Russians 7.7 percent (11.3 percent of population), Jews 2.6 percent (5.2 percent of population), Poles 18.9 percent (1.5 percent of population), and Germans 10.2 percent (1.4 percent of population).

43 Khlevniuk, "Party and NKVD," 23, 28; Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 591-593. Khlevniuk, "Party and NKVD," 23, 28; Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 591-593.

44 On the proportions of ranking officers, see Petrov, On the proportions of ranking officers, see Petrov, Kto rukovodil Kto rukovodil, 475; and Gregory, Terror Terror, 63. The representation of Jews in summer 1936 was still higher at the rank of general (fifty-four percent) and in the central apparatus of the NKVD in Moscow (sixty-four percent) and among ranking officers in Soviet Ukraine (sixty-seven percent). See Naumov, Bor'ba Bor'ba, 119, for the first two; Zolotar'ov, "Nachalnyts'kyi," 326-331, for the third. Latvians, Germans, and Poles disappeared entirely from the top ranks of the NKVD during the Great Terror. The Pole Stanisaw Redens, for example, was the head of the Moscow NKVD and, as such, had signed the orders to execute 20,761 people in the Terror. He himself was arrested and later executed as a Polish nationalist.

45 On the state pensions, see Kotkin, On the state pensions, see Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain Magnetic Mountain, 122.

46 Haslam, Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 194.

47 Hirsch, Hirsch, Empire Empire, 293-294.

48 On Austria, see Dean, On Austria, see Dean, Robbing Robbing, 86, 94, 105.

49 On the expulsion, see Tomaszewski, On the expulsion, see Tomaszewski, Preludium Preludium, 5, 139, pa.s.sim. See also Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung Politik der Vernichtung, 193-204; and Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, 459, 472.

50 Goeschel, Goeschel, Concentration Camps Concentration Camps, 24.

51 On 12 November 1938, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 4. On 12 November 1938, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 4.

52 On Madagascar, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 4, 8. On the Revisionists, see Arens, "Jewish Military," 205; and Spektor, "ydzi woyscy," 539. On Madagascar, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 4, 8. On the Revisionists, see Arens, "Jewish Military," 205; and Spektor, "ydzi woyscy," 539.

53 On Polish-German relations, see Roos, On Polish-German relations, see Roos, Polen Polen, 253, 396; Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, 475; and Weinberg, Foreign Policy Foreign Policy, 20, 404, 484.

54 Quotation: Evans, Quotation: Evans, Power Power, 604.

55 Kershaw, Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, 482; Zarusky, "Hitler bedeutet Krieg," 106-107.

56 See Haslam, See Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 90, 153. On Litvinov, see Herf, Jewish Enemy Jewish Enemy, 104; and Orwell, Orwell and Politics Orwell and Politics, 78.

57 Quotation: Wieczorkiewicz, Quotation: Wieczorkiewicz, acuch acuch, 323.

58 Haslam, Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 227. Quotation: Weinberg, World at Arms World at Arms, 25. I have not discussed Koestler's experiences in Spain, which coincided with the imprisonment of his friend Weissberg in the USSR; see G.o.d That Failed G.o.d That Failed, 75-80.

59 Quotations: Lukacs, Quotations: Lukacs, Last European War Last European War, 58-59.

60 Krebs, "j.a.pan," 543; Haslam, Krebs, "j.a.pan," 543; Haslam, East East, 132.

61 Levine, Levine, In Search of Sugihara In Search of Sugihara, 121; Sakamoto, j.a.panese Diplomats j.a.panese Diplomats, 102; Kuromiya, Midzy Warsaw a Tokio Midzy Warsaw a Tokio, 470-485; Hasegawa, Racing Racing, 13.

CHAPTER 4: MOLOTOV-RIBBENTROP EUROPE.

1 Bohler, Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 16, 69, 72, 74, Bohler, uberfall uberfall, 100. Datner counts 158; see 55 Dni 55 Dni, 94.

2 On Warsaw, see Bohler, On Warsaw, see Bohler, uberfall uberfall, 171-172. On the strafing, see Datner, 55 Dni 55 Dni, 96; and Mazower, Hitler's Empire Hitler's Empire, 67.

3 Naumann, "Die Morder," 54-55; Gra.s.s, Naumann, "Die Morder," 54-55; Gra.s.s, Beim Hauten Beim Hauten, 15-16.

4 On the death of German soldiers as "murder," see Datner, On the death of German soldiers as "murder," see Datner, Zbrodnie Zbrodnie, 73. For "insolence," see Lukacs, Last European War Last European War, 58. On the barn and cavalry, see Datner, Zbrodnie Zbrodnie, 72, 69; Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 166, 169; and Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 23.

5 Here is the instruction in somewhat greater detail: "Close your hearts to pity. Brutal action. Eighty million must get their due. Their existence must be secured. The stronger has the right. The greatest of severity." See Mallman, Here is the instruction in somewhat greater detail: "Close your hearts to pity. Brutal action. Eighty million must get their due. Their existence must be secured. The stronger has the right. The greatest of severity." See Mallman, Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, 54. On Ciepielow, see Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 131. On the red cross, see Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 181; see also 184. For other tank incidents, see Datner, Zbrodnia Zbrodnia, 62.

6 For "Poles are the slaves" and the death grimace, see Rossino, For "Poles are the slaves" and the death grimace, see Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 141, 204. On "the intention of the Leader to destroy and exterminate the Polish people," see Mallmann, Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, 57.

7 Rossino, Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 138, 141; Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 100.

8 Bartoszewski, Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 52-53.

9 Bohler, Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 19.

10 On Solec, see Bohler, On Solec, see Bohler, Verbrechen Verbrechen, 116. On the Jewish boy who asked for water, see Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 172. On Dynow, see Bohler, uberfall uberfall, 200. Rossino estimates that Jews were seven thousand of the fifty thousand Polish civilians killed by the Germans by the end of 1939; see Hitler Hitler, 234. Mallman, Bohler, and Mathaus also give these figures in Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, at 88. Bohler estimates about thirty thousand by the end of October (Verbrechen, 140) and forty-five thousand, of whom seven thousand were Jews, by the end of the year (uberfall, 138).

11 On the possibility of such hope, see Mynarski, On the possibility of such hope, see Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 54-59.

12 Quotation: Weinberg, Quotation: Weinberg, World at Arms World at Arms, 57.

13 On the Lwow betrayal, see Cienciala, On the Lwow betrayal, see Cienciala, Crime Crime, 20; Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 9-10; and Wnuk, Za pierwszego Sowieta Za pierwszego Sowieta, 35.

14 On the Ukrainian steppe, see Czapski, On the Ukrainian steppe, see Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 15. On the Polish farmers' distress, see Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 98-99.

15 Hrycak estimates 125,000 prisoners of war ("Victims," 179); Cienciala, 230,000-240,000 ( Hrycak estimates 125,000 prisoners of war ("Victims," 179); Cienciala, 230,000-240,000 (Crime, 26). The Soviets also kept about fifteen thousand people for hard labor in the mines and in road-building, of whom some two thousand died in 1941 during evacuations; see Hryciuk, "Victims," 180.

16 For examples of people moving from prison to power, taken from multiple regions, see HI 209/1/10420, HI 209/6/5157, HI 209/11/4217, HI 210/14/10544, HI 210/14/4527, HI 210/14/2526, HI 209/13/2935, and HI 210/12/1467. The instances of violence given here are in Gross, For examples of people moving from prison to power, taken from multiple regions, see HI 209/1/10420, HI 209/6/5157, HI 209/11/4217, HI 210/14/10544, HI 210/14/4527, HI 210/14/2526, HI 209/13/2935, and HI 210/12/1467. The instances of violence given here are in Gross, Revolution Revolution, 37, 44. For details on similar incidents, see HI 209/13/2935, HI 209/13/3124, HI 210/1/4372, HI 210/5/4040, HI 210/14/4908, and HI 209/7/799.

17 On the typical sentence, see Jasiewicz, On the typical sentence, see Jasiewicz, Zagada Zagada, 172. On the 109,400 people arrested and the 8,513 people sentenced to death, see Hryciuk, 182. On the disproportion between arrest and imprisonment numbers, see Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 236; and Gowacki, Sowieci Sowieci, 292.

18 On the sixty-one thousand Polish citizens, see Rossino, On the sixty-one thousand Polish citizens, see Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 15, also 30; "destroy Poland" is at 77. See also, generally, Ingrao, "Violence," 219-220. On Heydrich and Hitler, see Mallman, Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, 57; and Makowski, "Ausserordentliche," 7. On the doctorates, see Browning, Origins Origins, 16.

19 On Katowice, see Rossino, On Katowice, see Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 78. On the absence of good records, see Mallman, Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, 80.

20 The Einsatzgruppe z. b. V had the a.s.signment of expelling Jews. See Rossino, The Einsatzgruppe z. b. V had the a.s.signment of expelling Jews. See Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 90, 94, 98; the figure of twenty-two thousand is at 101. On Przemyl, see Bohler, uberfall uberfall, 202-203. See also Pohl, Herrschaft Herrschaft, 52.

21 On Hitler, see Rutherford, On Hitler, see Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 53. On Frank, see Seidel, Besatzungspolitik Besatzungspolitik, 184 (including quotation). On Frank as. .h.i.tler's former lawyer, see Mazower, Hitler's Empire Hitler's Empire, 74.

22 Wnuk, Wnuk, Za pierwszego Sowieta Za pierwszego Sowieta, 13-23. The locus cla.s.sicus is Gross, Revolution. Revolution.

23 Wnuk, Wnuk, Za pierwszego Sowieta Za pierwszego Sowieta, 23; Hryciuk, "Victims," 199.

24 On the 139,794 people taken from their homes, see Hryciuk, "Victims," 184. Gowacki records temperatures of minus 42 Celsius, which is minus 43 Fahrenheit; see On the 139,794 people taken from their homes, see Hryciuk, "Victims," 184. Gowacki records temperatures of minus 42 Celsius, which is minus 43 Fahrenheit; see Sowieci Sowieci, 328. See also Jolluck, Exile Exile, 16.

25 On "h.e.l.l" and the adult dead, see Wrobel, On "h.e.l.l" and the adult dead, see Wrobel, Polskie dzieci Polskie dzieci, 156, 178. See also Gross, Revolution Revolution, 214-218. For "their dreams and their wishes," see Gross, Children's Eyes Children's Eyes, 78.

26 Jolluck, Jolluck, Exile Exile, 41.

27 There were 10,864 dead among deportees in special settlements by 1 July 1941; see Khlevniuk, There were 10,864 dead among deportees in special settlements by 1 July 1941; see Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 279. On "the natives," see Dark Side Dark Side, 143. On the boots and swelling, see Gross, Children's Eyes Children's Eyes, 63, 88.

28 On the skeletons, "what was in his heart," and the white eagle emblem, see Gross, On the skeletons, "what was in his heart," and the white eagle emblem, see Gross, Children's Eyes Children's Eyes, 191, 202, 78 (also 71, 194).

29 Pankowicz, "Akcja," 43; Burleigh, Pankowicz, "Akcja," 43; Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards Germany Turns Eastwards, 275.

30 Quotation: Sh.o.r.e, Quotation: Sh.o.r.e, Information Information, 15. See also Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 56.

31 Rutherford, Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 59, 75.

32 On the numbers cited, see Rutherfold, On the numbers cited, see Rutherfold, Prelude Prelude, 59; Grynberg, Relacje Relacje, xii; and Hilberg, Destruction Destruction (vol. I), 156, 189. (vol. I), 156, 189.

33 For the deportation numbers, see Rutherford, For the deportation numbers, see Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 1, also 75, 88. On Owiska, see Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, 535; and Evans, Third Reich at War Third Reich at War, 75-76. On the murder of 7,700 Polish citizens found in mental inst.i.tutions, see Browning, Origins Origins, 189. See also Mazower, Hitler's Empire Hitler's Empire, 85.

34 Quotation: Urbaski, Quotation: Urbaski, Zagada Zagada, 32. On owicz, see Grynberg, Relacje Relacje, 239-240.

35 Rutherford, Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 9, quotations at 88 and 102.

36 For general descriptions of the three camps, see Cienciala, For general descriptions of the three camps, see Cienciala, Crime Crime, 29-33; also Abramov, Murder Murder, 46, 83, 101; and Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 113-114. On the Christmas Day observances, see Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 156-157.

37 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 33. On the outlines and skeletons, see Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 16, 31; and Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 115-117. For the ravens, see Berling, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 34.

38 Czapski, Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 18; Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 58; Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 205-209; Cienciala, Crime Crime, 33-35, 84-99, and for her estimate of the total number of informers (about one hundred), 159.

39 Jakubowicz: Jakubowicz: Pamitniki znalezione Pamitniki znalezione, 30, 38, 43, 53. On the return addresses, see Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 65.

40 On the dogs befriended by prisoners, see Mynarski, On the dogs befriended by prisoners, see Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 256-257; Abramov, Murderers Murderers, 86, 102; and Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 43. On the veterinarian who looked after them, see Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 84, 256.

41 On the Polish underground, see Wnuk, On the Polish underground, see Wnuk, Za pierwszego Sowieta Za pierwszego Sowieta, 368-371. On the decision to execute the prisoners, see Cienciala, Crime Crime, 116-120, quotations at 118. See also Jasiewicz, Zagada Zagada, 129.

42 Jasiewicz, Jasiewicz, Zagada Zagada, 131, 144-145, 159. These 7,305 people were apparently shot at Bykivnia and Kuropaty, major killing sites of the Great Terror; see Kalbarczyk, "Przedmioty," 47-53.

43 Swianiewicz, Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 75; Cienciala, Crime Crime, 122, 129-130, 175, quotation at 130. For additional pa.s.sages from Adam Solski's diary, see Zagada polskich elit Zagada polskich elit, 37.

44 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 124; Zagada polskich elit Zagada polskich elit, 43.

45 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 124; Zagada polskich elit Zagada polskich elit, 43. On Blokhin, see Braithwaite, Moscow Moscow, 45.

46 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 126-128; Zagada polskich elit Zagada polskich elit, 39.

47 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 122-123; Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 7, 8, 15, 17, 18, 45.

48 Abramov, Abramov, Murderers Murderers, 46; Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 63, 66.

49 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 34; Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 18; Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 64; Mynarski, W niewoli W niewoli, 225. For an informer on the system, see Berling, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 32.

50 Quotation: Swianiewicz, Quotation: Swianiewicz, Shadow Shadow, 69.

51 This is the sum of the execution figures given in Cienciala, This is the sum of the execution figures given in Cienciala, Crime Crime, pa.s.sim.

52 Cienciala, Cienciala, Crime Crime, 118, 173-174, 198-199, quotation about fathers at 198. On the 60,667 people sent to special settlements in Kazakhstan, see Hryciuk, "Victims," 187. On the "former people," see Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 282. See also Goussef, "Les deplacements," 188. For wives being told they would be joining their husbands, see Jolluck, Exile Exile, 16. For the "eternal mud and snow," see Gross, Children's Eyes Children's Eyes, 79.

53 On the dung and the NKVD office, see Jolluck, On the dung and the NKVD office, see Jolluck, Exile Exile, 40, 122-123. On the economist, see Czapski, Wspomnienia Wspomnienia, 27.

54 Of the 78,339 people deported, about eighty-four percent were Jewish; see Hryciuk, "Victims," 189. Of the 78,339 people deported, about eighty-four percent were Jewish; see Hryciuk, "Victims," 189.

55 Gross, Gross, Children's Eyes Children's Eyes, 221.

56 See Snyder, See Snyder, Reconstruction. Reconstruction.

57 Krebs, "j.a.pan," 545, 548; Levine, Krebs, "j.a.pan," 545, 548; Levine, Sugihara Sugihara, 132, 218, 262, 273; Sakamoto, j.a.panese Diplomats j.a.panese Diplomats, 102, 107, 113-114.

58 For the numbers cited, see Polian, For the numbers cited, see Polian, Against Their Will Against Their Will, 123. See also Weinberg, World at Arms World at Arms, 167-169; and Kuromiya, Midzy Warszaw a Tokio Midzy Warszaw a Tokio, 470-485.

59 This figure-408, 525 deportations-is the sum of the major actions. Rutherford estimates 500,000 total; see This figure-408, 525 deportations-is the sum of the major actions. Rutherford estimates 500,000 total; see Prelude Prelude, 7.

60 On Eichmann and the January 1940 proposal, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 3, 7, 19. On Eichmann and the January 1940 proposal, see Polian, "Schriftwechsel," 3, 7, 19.

61 On the origins of od's ghetto, see Grynberg, On the origins of od's ghetto, see Grynberg, ycie ycie, 430. Unrivalled in its description of the Warsaw ghetto is Engelking, Getto warszawskie Getto warszawskie, in English translation as The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City. The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City. On Schon, see T. B., "Organizator," 85-90. On German intentions and on population movements, see Browning, On Schon, see T. B., "Organizator," 85-90. On German intentions and on population movements, see Browning, Origins Origins, 100-124.

62 Drozdowski, "Fischer," 189-190. See also Engelking, Drozdowski, "Fischer," 189-190. See also Engelking, Getto warszawskie Getto warszawskie, chap. 2. Ringelblum is cited in Friedlander, Extermination Extermination, 160; on tourists, see also Mazower, Hitler's Empire Hitler's Empire, 95.

63 Quotation: Quotation: Zagada polskich elit Zagada polskich elit, 23. See also Longerich, Unwritten Order Unwritten Order, 55; Kershaw, Fateful Choices Fateful Choices, 447. Some 11,437 people died in the od ghetto in 1941; see Grynberg, ycie ycie, 430.