18 William Henry Holmes, "Journal of the Grand Canyon trip in 1880." Bound with William Henry Holmes, "Journal of the Grand Canyon trip in 1880." Bound with Random Records, Random Records, Vol. V, a collection of Holmes' papers preserved in the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, Washington. Vol. V, a collection of Holmes' papers preserved in the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, Washington.

19 By inference from a letter from King to Dutton, October 12, 1880. In King MSS, Letter Book, 1879-82, pp. 154-56. By inference from a letter from King to Dutton, October 12, 1880. In King MSS, Letter Book, 1879-82, pp. 154-56.

20 Dutton, Dutton, Tertiary History, Tertiary History, p. 144. p. 144.

21 These are reproduced in Wheeler, These are reproduced in Wheeler, Geographical Report, 1889. Geographical Report, 1889.

22 Joseph Pennell, Joseph Pennell, The Adventures of an Ill.u.s.trator The Adventures of an Ill.u.s.trator (Boston, 1925), pp. 82-83. (Boston, 1925), pp. 82-83.

10.

1 There is as yet no adequate study of Utah place names; the only work I know - and it is of limited usefulness and often of dubious accuracy - is the Utah Writers Project, There is as yet no adequate study of Utah place names; the only work I know - and it is of limited usefulness and often of dubious accuracy - is the Utah Writers Project, Origins of Utah Place Names, Origins of Utah Place Names, Salt Lake City, 1940. For Arizona I have used Will C. Barnes, Salt Lake City, 1940. For Arizona I have used Will C. Barnes, Arizona Place Names, Arizona Place Names, University of Arizona Bulletin No. 2 (Tucson, 1935). On the whole question of names I have leaned very heavily upon George R. Stewart, University of Arizona Bulletin No. 2 (Tucson, 1935). On the whole question of names I have leaned very heavily upon George R. Stewart, Names on the Land Names on the Land (New York, 1945). The reports of early western explorations, if carefully searched, would give up very much more information about the naming of the Plateau Province than they have yet been forced to yield. (New York, 1945). The reports of early western explorations, if carefully searched, would give up very much more information about the naming of the Plateau Province than they have yet been forced to yield.

2 Origins of Utah Place Names Origins of Utah Place Names lists it as of unknown origin. It is, of course, an echo of the Spanish p.r.o.nunciation of La Virgin. George Stewart has pointed out in conversation that he knows of no other Spanish use of the word Virgin in place-naming, so that La Verkin may in fact be a Spanish p.r.o.nunciation imposed upon an Anglo-American placename. It is also possible, but not at all probable, just to complicate the matter further, that the Virgin River was not named for the Virgin at all, but for Thomas Virgin, one of Jedediah Smith's men. lists it as of unknown origin. It is, of course, an echo of the Spanish p.r.o.nunciation of La Virgin. George Stewart has pointed out in conversation that he knows of no other Spanish use of the word Virgin in place-naming, so that La Verkin may in fact be a Spanish p.r.o.nunciation imposed upon an Anglo-American placename. It is also possible, but not at all probable, just to complicate the matter further, that the Virgin River was not named for the Virgin at all, but for Thomas Virgin, one of Jedediah Smith's men.

3 The Green is another river whose name is lost in controversy. The Crows called it the Seedskeedee-agie, the Prairie Hen River. Very early the Spaniards were calling it the Rio Verde, and the mountain men simply translated the Spanish name. H. H. Bancroft suggested, erroneously, that it was named after a trapper in Ashley's party. It is almost impossible that anyone seeing the upper river in low water would call it anything but the Green, for its color then is very marked, but the Spaniards probably named it from the green of its banks in a waste of bare rock. See Dee Linford, "Wyoming Stream Names," Wyoming Fish and Game Department Bulletin No. 3 (Cheyenne, 1944). The Green is another river whose name is lost in controversy. The Crows called it the Seedskeedee-agie, the Prairie Hen River. Very early the Spaniards were calling it the Rio Verde, and the mountain men simply translated the Spanish name. H. H. Bancroft suggested, erroneously, that it was named after a trapper in Ashley's party. It is almost impossible that anyone seeing the upper river in low water would call it anything but the Green, for its color then is very marked, but the Spaniards probably named it from the green of its banks in a waste of bare rock. See Dee Linford, "Wyoming Stream Names," Wyoming Fish and Game Department Bulletin No. 3 (Cheyenne, 1944).

4 Gilbert, Gilbert, Geology of the Henry Mountains, Geology of the Henry Mountains, p. viii. p. viii.

5 See Wallace Stegner, "C. E. Dutton - Explorer, Geologist, Nature Writer," See Wallace Stegner, "C. E. Dutton - Explorer, Geologist, Nature Writer," Scientific Monthly, Scientific Monthly, XLV (July, 1937), 82-83, which briefly discusses and lists some of Dutton's names. XLV (July, 1937), 82-83, which briefly discusses and lists some of Dutton's names.

6 Dellenbaugh, who himself partic.i.p.ated in the mapping and naming of the Grand Canyon region, wrote me in 1935, just before his death, that he had argued with Dutton without effect on the propriety of Indian names and the impropriety of Dutton's favored Oriental names. The letter is included in the Appendix to Stegner, "Clarence Edward Dutton," University of Iowa unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 1935. Dellenbaugh, who himself partic.i.p.ated in the mapping and naming of the Grand Canyon region, wrote me in 1935, just before his death, that he had argued with Dutton without effect on the propriety of Indian names and the impropriety of Dutton's favored Oriental names. The letter is included in the Appendix to Stegner, "Clarence Edward Dutton," University of Iowa unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 1935.

7 So at least says Charles Kelly, who is intimately familiar with the whole region and has made its history his lifelong study. Nevertheless, it is a courageous man who will a.s.sert that he knows the incontrovertible origin of any placename, much less an Indian one. And Indian informants are sometimes as confused about name origins in their own tongue as Americans are about names like La Verkin. So at least says Charles Kelly, who is intimately familiar with the whole region and has made its history his lifelong study. Nevertheless, it is a courageous man who will a.s.sert that he knows the incontrovertible origin of any placename, much less an Indian one. And Indian informants are sometimes as confused about name origins in their own tongue as Americans are about names like La Verkin.

11.

1 Letter of November 20, 1869, quoted in another letter from Humphreys to Belknap dated March 13, 1872, bound with Adams' Journal in the Huntington Library. Letter of November 20, 1869, quoted in another letter from Humphreys to Belknap dated March 13, 1872, bound with Adams' Journal in the Huntington Library.

2 Darrah, Darrah, Powell of the Colorado, Powell of the Colorado, p. 183. p. 183.

3 Letter, Powell to R. M. McCormick, April 20, 1872. Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 59-66. Letter, Powell to R. M. McCormick, April 20, 1872. Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 59-66.

4 Letter, Samuel Adams to Rep. Austin Blair, January 20, 1873, bound with Adams' Journal in the Huntington Library. Letter, Samuel Adams to Rep. Austin Blair, January 20, 1873, bound with Adams' Journal in the Huntington Library.

5 Beaver Evening Tribune, Beaver Evening Tribune, May 15, 1915. May 15, 1915.

III. BLUEPRINT FOR A DRYLAND DEMOCRACY.

1.

1 By the beginning of the year 1877 Hayden had published, besides ten increasingly elaborate Annual Reports, quarto monographs by Joseph Leidy, E. D. Cope, Cyrus Thomas, Leo Lesquereux, F. B. Meek, and A. S. Packard, and two volumes of Bulletins jammed with short or preliminary studies by many men, plus eight volumes of "Miscellaneous Publications" including everything from lists of photographs by W. H. Jackson to a handbook on the birds of the Missouri region by Eliott Coues plus a hamperful of "Uncla.s.sified Publications" - pamphlets and reprints and preliminary reports - plus a good many maps. Clarence King's Annual Reports, incorporated in the Reports of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of War, seldom exceeded two pages, but three of his projected seven quarto final reports were finished: James D. Hague's By the beginning of the year 1877 Hayden had published, besides ten increasingly elaborate Annual Reports, quarto monographs by Joseph Leidy, E. D. Cope, Cyrus Thomas, Leo Lesquereux, F. B. Meek, and A. S. Packard, and two volumes of Bulletins jammed with short or preliminary studies by many men, plus eight volumes of "Miscellaneous Publications" including everything from lists of photographs by W. H. Jackson to a handbook on the birds of the Missouri region by Eliott Coues plus a hamperful of "Uncla.s.sified Publications" - pamphlets and reprints and preliminary reports - plus a good many maps. Clarence King's Annual Reports, incorporated in the Reports of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of War, seldom exceeded two pages, but three of his projected seven quarto final reports were finished: James D. Hague's Mining Industry, Mining Industry, Sereno Watson's Sereno Watson's Botany, Botany, and Ferdinand Zirkel's and Ferdinand Zirkel's Microscopical Petrography. Microscopical Petrography. Also finished by 1877 were both his large folio Atlas incorporating all the topographical and geological work of the survey, and the Atlas to accompany Hague's Also finished by 1877 were both his large folio Atlas incorporating all the topographical and geological work of the survey, and the Atlas to accompany Hague's Mining Industry. Mining Industry. Wheeler, besides progress reports and Annual Reports (the latter growing like Hayden's until by 1876 it totaled 355 pages) had published two of his contemplated seven final reports, that by Gilbert, Marvine, et al., on Wheeler, besides progress reports and Annual Reports (the latter growing like Hayden's until by 1876 it totaled 355 pages) had published two of his contemplated seven final reports, that by Gilbert, Marvine, et al., on Geology, Geology, and that by Yarrow, Coues, et al., on and that by Yarrow, Coues, et al., on Zoology. Zoology. In addition he had brought out a dozen or more miscellaneous publications, lists of birds, vertebrate fossils, meteorological readings, and the like, and an unspecified number of undated atlas sheets. See L. F. Schmeckebier, In addition he had brought out a dozen or more miscellaneous publications, lists of birds, vertebrate fossils, meteorological readings, and the like, and an unspecified number of undated atlas sheets. See L. F. Schmeckebier, Catalogue and Index of the Publications of the Hayden, King, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys Catalogue and Index of the Publications of the Hayden, King, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys (Washington, 1904). (Washington, 1904).

2 Josiah Whitney, with whose Geological Survey of California Clarence King had .his first field experience, had learned early and to his sorrow how practical-minded a legislative body can be, and had had to fight for appropriations against every sort of anti-intellectual criticism. King, enlightened by Whitney's experience, took pains to see that his first publication was his most practical: Hague's Mining Industry. The "impractical" scientific activities of the United States Geological Survey, especially the paleontological work carried on by Professor Marsh of Yale, came under similar fire in 1892 when Hilary Herbert of Alabama attacked the Survey in the Senate by ridiculing Marsh's monograph on the Odontornithes, the "Birds-with-Teeth." A man conducting a bureau of government science did well not to look too scientific. Josiah Whitney, with whose Geological Survey of California Clarence King had .his first field experience, had learned early and to his sorrow how practical-minded a legislative body can be, and had had to fight for appropriations against every sort of anti-intellectual criticism. King, enlightened by Whitney's experience, took pains to see that his first publication was his most practical: Hague's Mining Industry. The "impractical" scientific activities of the United States Geological Survey, especially the paleontological work carried on by Professor Marsh of Yale, came under similar fire in 1892 when Hilary Herbert of Alabama attacked the Survey in the Senate by ridiculing Marsh's monograph on the Odontornithes, the "Birds-with-Teeth." A man conducting a bureau of government science did well not to look too scientific.

3 Congress on April 15, 1874, requested information from President Grant on the possibility of consolidating the surveys operating west of the Mississippi. Hayden, Powell, the Secretary of War, and the Chief of the Army Engineers, General Humphreys, were first called on for opinions by letter, and later called for questioning. Powell, who had introduced into the controversy the further question of civilian or military control of a consolidated survey, supported a civilian control, but remained aloof from the squabbling that broke out between Hayden and Wheeler. The result of the 1874 investigation was to leave things pretty much as they were before, except that Powell was moved from the Smithsonian back to the Interior Department and the official name of his survey changed to "Geological Survey of the Territories, Second Division." A secondary result was to bring into the open the antipathy between Wheeler and Hayden, an antipathy so outspoken that the committee rebuked them both; and probably to arouse Hayden's suspicion of Powell as well, since Powell had obviously come off the best of the three. See, for the testimony in the case, House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess. The episode is well covered in Darrah, Congress on April 15, 1874, requested information from President Grant on the possibility of consolidating the surveys operating west of the Mississippi. Hayden, Powell, the Secretary of War, and the Chief of the Army Engineers, General Humphreys, were first called on for opinions by letter, and later called for questioning. Powell, who had introduced into the controversy the further question of civilian or military control of a consolidated survey, supported a civilian control, but remained aloof from the squabbling that broke out between Hayden and Wheeler. The result of the 1874 investigation was to leave things pretty much as they were before, except that Powell was moved from the Smithsonian back to the Interior Department and the official name of his survey changed to "Geological Survey of the Territories, Second Division." A secondary result was to bring into the open the antipathy between Wheeler and Hayden, an antipathy so outspoken that the committee rebuked them both; and probably to arouse Hayden's suspicion of Powell as well, since Powell had obviously come off the best of the three. See, for the testimony in the case, House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess. The episode is well covered in Darrah, Powell of the Colorado, Powell of the Colorado, pp. 207-11. pp. 207-11.

4 Before the 1874 investigating committee, Dr. H. C. Yarrow, a zoologist of the Wheeler Survey, testified that Hayden had told him, "You can tell Wheeler that if he stirs a finger or attempts to interfere with me or my survey in any way, I will utterly crush him - as I have enough Congressional influence to do so, and will bring it all to bear." House Report No. 612, p. 62. Before the 1874 investigating committee, Dr. H. C. Yarrow, a zoologist of the Wheeler Survey, testified that Hayden had told him, "You can tell Wheeler that if he stirs a finger or attempts to interfere with me or my survey in any way, I will utterly crush him - as I have enough Congressional influence to do so, and will bring it all to bear." House Report No. 612, p. 62.

5 Henry Nash Smith, "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey," Henry Nash Smith, "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, x.x.xIV (June, 1947), 37-58. x.x.xIV (June, 1947), 37-58.

6 Powell's departure from Normal was somewhat chilly. His resignation, proffered on June 26, 1872, was accepted without comment, and there was an insistent attempt on the part of the university, through Jesse Fell, to obtain a clarification of the ownership of natural history collections which both Powell and the university claimed. Letter from Jesse Fell dated December 3, 1872, Powell Survey, Letters Received, II, No. 87. Powell's departure from Normal was somewhat chilly. His resignation, proffered on June 26, 1872, was accepted without comment, and there was an insistent attempt on the part of the university, through Jesse Fell, to obtain a clarification of the ownership of natural history collections which both Powell and the university claimed. Letter from Jesse Fell dated December 3, 1872, Powell Survey, Letters Received, II, No. 87.

7 Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 137, 139, 154-5. Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 137, 139, 154-5.

8 Copies of the letters to both Garfield and Hewitt are preserved in Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 156-62. Newberry's dislike of Hayden evidently grew from his feeling that his student and protege, Henry Newton, had been wronged by Hayden's interference. In his biographical memoir prefixed to Newton's Copies of the letters to both Garfield and Hewitt are preserved in Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 156-62. Newberry's dislike of Hayden evidently grew from his feeling that his student and protege, Henry Newton, had been wronged by Hayden's interference. In his biographical memoir prefixed to Newton's Report on the Geology of the Black Hills, Report on the Geology of the Black Hills, 1880, Newberry is bitter and unmistakable, though he names no names: "Mr. Newton took great pains with his report, as he had done in the acc.u.mulation of facts, and in its preparation expended about eighteen hundred dollars from his own pocket, when it was quite uncertain whether this sum would be repaid him by the government. When presented to Congress its publication would have been immediately authorized except for a selfish and heartless opposition it encountered springing from the fear that it would betray the inaccuracy of previously published descriptions of the 1880, Newberry is bitter and unmistakable, though he names no names: "Mr. Newton took great pains with his report, as he had done in the acc.u.mulation of facts, and in its preparation expended about eighteen hundred dollars from his own pocket, when it was quite uncertain whether this sum would be repaid him by the government. When presented to Congress its publication would have been immediately authorized except for a selfish and heartless opposition it encountered springing from the fear that it would betray the inaccuracy of previously published descriptions of the geology geology of this region. This opposition cost Mr. Newton his life, for when Congress deferred action on his report till another session he determined to employ a part of the interval in revisiting the Black Hills.... While engaged in this work he was attacked by typhoid fever, and died at Deadwood August 15, 1877." Since Hayden's "General View of the Geology of the Missouri Valley," in the of this region. This opposition cost Mr. Newton his life, for when Congress deferred action on his report till another session he determined to employ a part of the interval in revisiting the Black Hills.... While engaged in this work he was attacked by typhoid fever, and died at Deadwood August 15, 1877." Since Hayden's "General View of the Geology of the Missouri Valley," in the 4th Annual Report of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, 4th Annual Report of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, 1870, was the only real geological publication on the Black Hills region, there can be no doubt at whom Newberry's bitterness is aimed. 1870, was the only real geological publication on the Black Hills region, there can be no doubt at whom Newberry's bitterness is aimed.

9 After 1871, Hayden's Annual Reports were ill.u.s.trated with increasing lavishness, by woodcuts, line drawings, panoramas, maps, and lithographs, many of them made from Jackson's photographs, and some of them in color. King's finished reports were even more beautifully printed and ill.u.s.trated. To compete, Powell's had to be of comparable quality. Actually, we can thank the jealousy among the various early surveys for some of the most beautiful books about the West that have ever been produced. See Part II, Chapter 9, ante. After 1871, Hayden's Annual Reports were ill.u.s.trated with increasing lavishness, by woodcuts, line drawings, panoramas, maps, and lithographs, many of them made from Jackson's photographs, and some of them in color. King's finished reports were even more beautifully printed and ill.u.s.trated. To compete, Powell's had to be of comparable quality. Actually, we can thank the jealousy among the various early surveys for some of the most beautiful books about the West that have ever been produced. See Part II, Chapter 9, ante.

10 Powell Survey, Letters Received, VI, No. 74. Powell Survey, Letters Received, VI, No. 74.

11 Ibid., Ibid., Nos. 79-92. Nos. 79-92.

12 Especially A. S. Packard and F. W. Pearson, both of Hayden's survey. Much of their correspondence is in F. V. Hayden, Personal Letters Received, National Archives. Especially A. S. Packard and F. W. Pearson, both of Hayden's survey. Much of their correspondence is in F. V. Hayden, Personal Letters Received, National Archives.

13 Powell Survey, Letters Received, V, Nos. 308-326. Powell Survey, Letters Received, V, Nos. 308-326.

14 F. V. Hayden, Personal Letters Sent. F. V. Hayden, Personal Letters Sent.

15 The first part of this was published as The first part of this was published as An Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages An Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages in 1877, and was subsequently, used by all the amateur and part-time workers who collaborated in Powell's studies of the Indian languages. in 1877, and was subsequently, used by all the amateur and part-time workers who collaborated in Powell's studies of the Indian languages.

16 See Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 1036-7 and 1082-3. See Powell Survey, Letters Sent, I, Nos. 1036-7 and 1082-3.

2.

1 Powell Survey, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 172 and 284. Powell Survey, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 172 and 284.

2 Ibid., Ibid., No. 351. No. 351.

3 Ibid., Nos. Ibid., Nos. 111-114. 111-114.

4 These tactics, actually, he could have learned from Hayden, who in 1874 had appeared before the Congressional committee armed with a pet.i.tion, signed by the most formidable names in American science, supporting the notion of civilian control of the consolidated surveys. House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess. These tactics, actually, he could have learned from Hayden, who in 1874 had appeared before the Congressional committee armed with a pet.i.tion, signed by the most formidable names in American science, supporting the notion of civilian control of the consolidated surveys. House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess.

5 Fred A. Shannon, Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, The Farmer's Last Frontier, p. 60. p. 60.

6 See Henry Nash Smith's penetrating discussion of these folk beliefs of the West in See Henry Nash Smith's penetrating discussion of these folk beliefs of the West in Virgin Land, Virgin Land, especially Section III, "The Garden of the World." especially Section III, "The Garden of the World."

3.

1 Thus Thomas Nuttall, pursuing his natural history studies on the frontier reaches of the Arkansas in 1819, found a surveyor running his lines on the land along the Cadron, and heard of another moving that way from the Great Prairie. At the time there were only squatters in the bottoms, and t.i.tle was still being disputed among Cherokees, Osages, and the United States. Mr. Pettis, the surveyor, was laying out only the easily settled lands, ignoring the difficult and hilly sections not likely to be desired by frontier farmers. For his labors he was getting three dollars a mile. His activities, in that year and later, were being duplicated all along the western border. Thomas Nuttall, Thus Thomas Nuttall, pursuing his natural history studies on the frontier reaches of the Arkansas in 1819, found a surveyor running his lines on the land along the Cadron, and heard of another moving that way from the Great Prairie. At the time there were only squatters in the bottoms, and t.i.tle was still being disputed among Cherokees, Osages, and the United States. Mr. Pettis, the surveyor, was laying out only the easily settled lands, ignoring the difficult and hilly sections not likely to be desired by frontier farmers. For his labors he was getting three dollars a mile. His activities, in that year and later, were being duplicated all along the western border. Thomas Nuttall, Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the Year 1819 Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the Year 1819 (Philadelphia, 1821). (Thwaites, Vol. XIII), p. 165. (Philadelphia, 1821). (Thwaites, Vol. XIII), p. 165.

2 The ordinance of May 20, 1785, before the act creating the surveyor-general in 1789, specified that "the geographers and surveyors shall pay the utmost attention to the variation of the magnetic needle, and shall run and note all lines by the true meridian, certifying with every plat what was the variation at the time of running of the lines thereon noted." But practice was never quite in step with intention, partly because of inaccurate instruments and methods, and partly because the system of contract surveying invited carelessness and venality. See Lowell O. Stewart, The ordinance of May 20, 1785, before the act creating the surveyor-general in 1789, specified that "the geographers and surveyors shall pay the utmost attention to the variation of the magnetic needle, and shall run and note all lines by the true meridian, certifying with every plat what was the variation at the time of running of the lines thereon noted." But practice was never quite in step with intention, partly because of inaccurate instruments and methods, and partly because the system of contract surveying invited carelessness and venality. See Lowell O. Stewart, Public Land Surveys, History, Instruction, Methods Public Land Surveys, History, Instruction, Methods (Ames, Iowa, 1935). Major Powell's testimony before several Congressional committees indicated that he had little faith in the accuracy of the General Land Office surveys, and found the Land Office maps useless for anything but land parceling. (Ames, Iowa, 1935). Major Powell's testimony before several Congressional committees indicated that he had little faith in the accuracy of the General Land Office surveys, and found the Land Office maps useless for anything but land parceling.

3 Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 1876, p. Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 1876, p. 130. 130.

4 The cla.s.sical statement of the changes compelled by the conditions of the arid West is that of Walter Webb, The cla.s.sical statement of the changes compelled by the conditions of the arid West is that of Walter Webb, The Great Plains. The Great Plains. See also Henry Nash Smith, See also Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land; Virgin Land; Joseph Kinsey Howard, Joseph Kinsey Howard, Montana, High, Wide, and Hansome Montana, High, Wide, and Hansome (New Haven, Conn., 1943); James C. Malin, The (New Haven, Conn., 1943); James C. Malin, The Gra.s.slands of North America; Gra.s.slands of North America; and what underlies the thinking in all of these, Powell's own and what underlies the thinking in all of these, Powell's own Report on the Lands of the Arid Region. Report on the Lands of the Arid Region.

5 Despite the efforts of speculators, local patriots, and visionaries such as Gilpin to deny the Great American Desert, and despite the undoubted exaggeration in that word "desert," no one need be in doubt about the sharp change in climate that occurs somewhere between the 96th and 100th meridians. It can be felt on the lips and skin, observed in the characteristic plant and animal life, seen in the clarity and/or dustiness of the atmosphere, determined by measurements of rainfall and evaporation, tested by attempts at unaided agriculture. Practically every western traveler in the early years remarked the facts of aridity, though not all used the word "desert," especially after the Kansas boom of the sixties had made the natives sensitive to supposed slurs. Part of the difficulty of adjustment, part of the continued misunderstanding of the facts, arose from the fact that the dividing line between sub humid and arid runs not along the state lines, but along a line about a third of the way west in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. The well-watered eastern third of Kansas might well resent being called a desert; the arid western portion might well believe for a time that it could use the farming methods and inst.i.tutions that worked perfectly well only a few miles east. Despite the efforts of speculators, local patriots, and visionaries such as Gilpin to deny the Great American Desert, and despite the undoubted exaggeration in that word "desert," no one need be in doubt about the sharp change in climate that occurs somewhere between the 96th and 100th meridians. It can be felt on the lips and skin, observed in the characteristic plant and animal life, seen in the clarity and/or dustiness of the atmosphere, determined by measurements of rainfall and evaporation, tested by attempts at unaided agriculture. Practically every western traveler in the early years remarked the facts of aridity, though not all used the word "desert," especially after the Kansas boom of the sixties had made the natives sensitive to supposed slurs. Part of the difficulty of adjustment, part of the continued misunderstanding of the facts, arose from the fact that the dividing line between sub humid and arid runs not along the state lines, but along a line about a third of the way west in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. The well-watered eastern third of Kansas might well resent being called a desert; the arid western portion might well believe for a time that it could use the farming methods and inst.i.tutions that worked perfectly well only a few miles east.

6 Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, The Emergence of Modern America, in in History of American Life, History of American Life, Vol. VIII (New York, 1927). Vol. VIII (New York, 1927).

7 Bayard Taylor, despite his attempt to be judicial in Bayard Taylor, despite his attempt to be judicial in Colorado, A Summer Trip, Colorado, A Summer Trip, was close to being converted to the popular optimism: "I am fast inclining toward the opinion, that there is was close to being converted to the popular optimism: "I am fast inclining toward the opinion, that there is no no American Desert on this side of the Rocky Mountains.... I remember that as late as 1859, the lowest computation of the extent of the Desert was two hundred miles; yet in the Smoky Hill route I saw less than fifty miles to which the term could be properly applied... time and settlement may subdue even this narrow belt... there may some day be groves and farms on the treeless plains... wheat may usurp the place of buffalo-gra.s.s, and potatoes drive out the cactus." Few people had a keener ear than Taylor for what people wanted to hear. It was only three years later that Science was corroborating the travelers, in Cyrus Thomas' report on "The Agriculture of Colorado" in the Hayden Survey's 3rd American Desert on this side of the Rocky Mountains.... I remember that as late as 1859, the lowest computation of the extent of the Desert was two hundred miles; yet in the Smoky Hill route I saw less than fifty miles to which the term could be properly applied... time and settlement may subdue even this narrow belt... there may some day be groves and farms on the treeless plains... wheat may usurp the place of buffalo-gra.s.s, and potatoes drive out the cactus." Few people had a keener ear than Taylor for what people wanted to hear. It was only three years later that Science was corroborating the travelers, in Cyrus Thomas' report on "The Agriculture of Colorado" in the Hayden Survey's 3rd Annual Report. Annual Report. Thomas did guess rather lamely that the timber supply of Colorado would prove "not inexhaustible," and his cautious tone as well as the circ.u.mspection of Hayden's letter of transmittal indicated that the Hayden Survey had already begun to feel pressure from the Gilpin tribe whenever it ventured any "deficiency" judgment of Western resources. Thomas did guess rather lamely that the timber supply of Colorado would prove "not inexhaustible," and his cautious tone as well as the circ.u.mspection of Hayden's letter of transmittal indicated that the Hayden Survey had already begun to feel pressure from the Gilpin tribe whenever it ventured any "deficiency" judgment of Western resources.

8 Dan Elbert Clark, Dan Elbert Clark, The West in American History, The West in American History, pp. 592-93. The most authoritative account of the beginning of the cattle drives is in Joseph G. McCoy, pp. 592-93. The most authoritative account of the beginning of the cattle drives is in Joseph G. McCoy, Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade (1874; reprinted in facsimile by The Rare Book Shop, Washington, D. C., 1932). Pictures, including photographs, record the very earliest years. There is an Alexander Gardner photograph of cattle being loaded at the McCoy pens in Abilene, and drawings of cattle drives by Tavernier, Frenzeny, and Henry Worrall. See Robert Taft, (1874; reprinted in facsimile by The Rare Book Shop, Washington, D. C., 1932). Pictures, including photographs, record the very earliest years. There is an Alexander Gardner photograph of cattle being loaded at the McCoy pens in Abilene, and drawings of cattle drives by Tavernier, Frenzeny, and Henry Worrall. See Robert Taft, Artists and Ill.u.s.trators of the Old West, Artists and Ill.u.s.trators of the Old West, pp. 123-25, and his pp. 123-25, and his Photography and the American Scene, Photography and the American Scene, p. 278. p. 278.

9 Jack Sumner, Journal, June 7, 1869. Jack Sumner, Journal, June 7, 1869.

10 Oberholtzer, Oberholtzer, History of the United States since the Civil War, History of the United States since the Civil War, III, 380. III, 380.

11 The tunnel was begun on October 19, 1869, and reached the Lode on September 1, 1878. The tunnel was begun on October 19, 1869, and reached the Lode on September 1, 1878. Ibid., Ibid., II, 532 ff. II, 532 ff.

12 Fred A. Shannon, Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, The Farmer's Last Frontier, p. 55. p. 55.

13 The sagas of pioneers attempting to break and hold a homestead in the arid belt have become part of our tradition and one of the great "matters" of our literature. Hamlin Garland's The sagas of pioneers attempting to break and hold a homestead in the arid belt have become part of our tradition and one of the great "matters" of our literature. Hamlin Garland's Main Traveled Roads Main Traveled Roads and and A Son of the Middle A Son of the Middle Border, O. E. Rolvaag's Border, O. E. Rolvaag's Giants in the Earth, Giants in the Earth, and Mari Sandoz's and Mari Sandoz's Old Jules Old Jules are among the finest representatives of the literary type. See also Shannon, are among the finest representatives of the literary type. See also Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, The Farmer's Last Frontier, and Everett Newton d.i.c.k, and Everett Newton d.i.c.k, The Sod House Frontier, The Sod House Frontier, 1854-1893 (New York, 1937). 1854-1893 (New York, 1937).

14 The effects of the various land laws upon the individual farmer are discussed in Shannon, The effects of the various land laws upon the individual farmer are discussed in Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, The Farmer's Last Frontier, pp. 51-75; in Paul Wallace Gates, "The Homestead Law in an Incongruous Land System," pp. 51-75; in Paul Wallace Gates, "The Homestead Law in an Incongruous Land System," American Historical Review, American Historical Review, XLI, No. 4 (July, 1936); and in XLI, No. 4 (July, 1936); and in Report of the Public Lands Commission, Report of the Public Lands Commission, Senate Doc.u.ment No. 189, 58th Cong., 3rd Sess., Washington, 1904. This last brings up to date as of 1904 the findings of the Public Lands Commission of 1879-80, on which Powell served. Senate Doc.u.ment No. 189, 58th Cong., 3rd Sess., Washington, 1904. This last brings up to date as of 1904 the findings of the Public Lands Commission of 1879-80, on which Powell served.

15 Shannon, Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, The Farmer's Last Frontier, p. 63, quoting S. A. D. Puter and Horace Stevens, p. 63, quoting S. A. D. Puter and Horace Stevens, Looters of the Public Domain Looters of the Public Domain (Portland, Ore., 1908), pp. 59-66. (Portland, Ore., 1908), pp. 59-66.

16 On Henry Miller, see E. F. Treadwell, On Henry Miller, see E. F. Treadwell, Cattle King Cattle King (New York, 1931). Miller was no isolated phenomenon. In 1883 there were twenty cattle companies, with capitalization from $10,000 to $3,000,000, incorporated in Wyoming alone. The Union Cattle Company and the Swan Land and Cattle Company were each initially capitalized at $3,000,000. Swan controlled a range fifty by one hundred miles, on which it ran more than 100,000 cattle. John Iliff, a pioneer cattle king of Colorado, controlled thirty-five miles along the Platte, thereby dominating a huge range. See Clark, (New York, 1931). Miller was no isolated phenomenon. In 1883 there were twenty cattle companies, with capitalization from $10,000 to $3,000,000, incorporated in Wyoming alone. The Union Cattle Company and the Swan Land and Cattle Company were each initially capitalized at $3,000,000. Swan controlled a range fifty by one hundred miles, on which it ran more than 100,000 cattle. John Iliff, a pioneer cattle king of Colorado, controlled thirty-five miles along the Platte, thereby dominating a huge range. See Clark, The West in American History, The West in American History, pp. 596-98, and Howard R. Driggs, pp. 596-98, and Howard R. Driggs, Westward America Westward America (New York, 1942), pp. 283-86. (New York, 1942), pp. 283-86.

17 After 1875 the cla.s.sification of public lands was a duty charged to both the Powell and Hayden Surveys by the Secretary of the Interior. The instructions to Hayden that year read in part, "It will be borne in mind that the ultimate design to be accomplished by these surveys is the preparation of suitable maps of the country surveyed for the use of the government and of the nation, which will afford full information concerning the agricultural and mineral resources, and other important characteristics of the unexplored regions of our Territorial domain.... In addition thereto, you will obtain the necessary information for the preparation of charts, upon which shall be indicated the areas of gra.s.s, timber, and mineral lands, and such other portions of the country surveyed as may be susceptible of cultivation by means of irrigation...." (Quoted in Hayden's Letters of Transmittal, United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, After 1875 the cla.s.sification of public lands was a duty charged to both the Powell and Hayden Surveys by the Secretary of the Interior. The instructions to Hayden that year read in part, "It will be borne in mind that the ultimate design to be accomplished by these surveys is the preparation of suitable maps of the country surveyed for the use of the government and of the nation, which will afford full information concerning the agricultural and mineral resources, and other important characteristics of the unexplored regions of our Territorial domain.... In addition thereto, you will obtain the necessary information for the preparation of charts, upon which shall be indicated the areas of gra.s.s, timber, and mineral lands, and such other portions of the country surveyed as may be susceptible of cultivation by means of irrigation...." (Quoted in Hayden's Letters of Transmittal, United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, 10th Annual Report, 10th Annual Report, 1876.) Cyrus Thomas, Hayden, and Henry Gannett all reported on such land cla.s.sification during the next three years. Powell was thus not the only advocate or student of land cla.s.sification, though he may well have suggested the whole idea to Columbus Delano, the Secretary of the Interior. The problem was much closer to his interests than to Hayden's. Actually, Powell's 1876.) Cyrus Thomas, Hayden, and Henry Gannett all reported on such land cla.s.sification during the next three years. Powell was thus not the only advocate or student of land cla.s.sification, though he may well have suggested the whole idea to Columbus Delano, the Secretary of the Interior. The problem was much closer to his interests than to Hayden's. Actually, Powell's Arid Regions Arid Regions was an innovation neither in its emphasis on irrigation nor in its advocacy of cla.s.sification of public lands. What Powell did was to attack systematically, with an eye to the long-term public good and with the experience of a full decade, what others had approached halfheartedly or without adequate information, and he examined not only conditions, but the human consequences of conditions. was an innovation neither in its emphasis on irrigation nor in its advocacy of cla.s.sification of public lands. What Powell did was to attack systematically, with an eye to the long-term public good and with the experience of a full decade, what others had approached halfheartedly or without adequate information, and he examined not only conditions, but the human consequences of conditions.

18 WPA, WPA, Utah, Utah, American Guide Series (New York, 1945), p. 98. American Guide Series (New York, 1945), p. 98.

19 Though the Though the Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah, Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah, United States Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell in Charge, 2nd edition, Washington, 1879, contains chapters on rainfall, water supply, the water requirements of different cla.s.ses of irrigable lands, and detailed studies of the lands of the Salt Lake, Sevier, and Colorado River drainage systems in Utah, the meat of the book is in its first two chapters. The first summarizes the physical characteristics of the arid region that had up to then been too much ignored, and the second outlines the land system and the inst.i.tutional modulations needed for the region: a statement of observable facts, and a policy derived from them. United States Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell in Charge, 2nd edition, Washington, 1879, contains chapters on rainfall, water supply, the water requirements of different cla.s.ses of irrigable lands, and detailed studies of the lands of the Salt Lake, Sevier, and Colorado River drainage systems in Utah, the meat of the book is in its first two chapters. The first summarizes the physical characteristics of the arid region that had up to then been too much ignored, and the second outlines the land system and the inst.i.tutional modulations needed for the region: a statement of observable facts, and a policy derived from them.

20 One should never forget, in estimating the truly revolutionary character of Powell's proposals, that not much more than a year before they were made, in the Centennial year marked by the Philadelphia Exposition, the hundred-year-old democracy was at as low an ebb in public morals and public and private morale as it has ever been. As Allan Nevins says, "... the Grant era stands unique in the comprehensiveness of its rascality. The cities, half of which had their counterparts of Tweed; the legislatures, with their rings, lobbyists, and bribe-takers; the South, prey of unscrupulous Carpetbaggers and Scalawags; the West, sacked by railway and mining corporations; Congress, with its Credit Mobilier, its salary grab, its tools of predatory business; the executive departments, honeycombed with thievery; private finance and trade, with greedy figures like Jay Cooke and Collis P. Huntington honored and typical - everywhere the scene was the same." (Allan Nevins, One should never forget, in estimating the truly revolutionary character of Powell's proposals, that not much more than a year before they were made, in the Centennial year marked by the Philadelphia Exposition, the hundred-year-old democracy was at as low an ebb in public morals and public and private morale as it has ever been. As Allan Nevins says, "... the Grant era stands unique in the comprehensiveness of its rascality. The cities, half of which had their counterparts of Tweed; the legislatures, with their rings, lobbyists, and bribe-takers; the South, prey of unscrupulous Carpetbaggers and Scalawags; the West, sacked by railway and mining corporations; Congress, with its Credit Mobilier, its salary grab, its tools of predatory business; the executive departments, honeycombed with thievery; private finance and trade, with greedy figures like Jay Cooke and Collis P. Huntington honored and typical - everywhere the scene was the same." (Allan Nevins, Hamilton Fish, the Inner History of the Grant Administration, Hamilton Fish, the Inner History of the Grant Administration, pp. 638-9.) Supporting all this was a hectic economic boom which collapsed in 1873, and after the collapse every smelly rathole in the government began to give up its vermin. James Watson Webb's steal in Brazil, Van Buren's steal at the Vienna International Fair, Schenck's entanglement in the Emma Mine deals; the Credit Mobilier; the Whiskey Ring; the Indian Bureau scandals that disgraced Columbus Delano - they came so fast that one was hardly out of the headlines before another appeared: Congressmen, Senators, cabinet ministers, amba.s.sadors, presidential advisors, Vice-Presidents, Grant himself, the whole government was afflicted with a moral infection as contagious as ringworm. Directly on top of this, or in the midst of it, Powell made his proposals for the development of the West. pp. 638-9.) Supporting all this was a hectic economic boom which collapsed in 1873, and after the collapse every smelly rathole in the government began to give up its vermin. James Watson Webb's steal in Brazil, Van Buren's steal at the Vienna International Fair, Schenck's entanglement in the Emma Mine deals; the Credit Mobilier; the Whiskey Ring; the Indian Bureau scandals that disgraced Columbus Delano - they came so fast that one was hardly out of the headlines before another appeared: Congressmen, Senators, cabinet ministers, amba.s.sadors, presidential advisors, Vice-Presidents, Grant himself, the whole government was afflicted with a moral infection as contagious as ringworm. Directly on top of this, or in the midst of it, Powell made his proposals for the development of the West.

21 J. W. Powell, "From Savagery to Barbarism," J. W. Powell, "From Savagery to Barbarism," Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, III, 173-96. III, 173-96.

4.

1 House Executive Doc.u.ment No. 73, 45th Cong., 2nd Sess., Washington, 1878. House Executive Doc.u.ment No. 73, 45th Cong., 2nd Sess., Washington, 1878.

2 Henry Nash Smith has pointed out the great importance of Professor Henry's death in the events leading up to the consolidation of the surveys. See "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey"; also Henry Nash Smith has pointed out the great importance of Professor Henry's death in the events leading up to the consolidation of the surveys. See "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey"; also Virgin Land, Virgin Land, p. 197. p. 197.

3 Schuchert and LeVene, Schuchert and LeVene, O. O. C. Marsh, C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, Pioneer in Paleontology, is a valuable biography and sheds light on many of the developments of government science during the eighteen-seventies and eighties. is a valuable biography and sheds light on many of the developments of government science during the eighteen-seventies and eighties.

4 Abram Hewitt, "Consolidating the Western Surveys." Speech in the House of Representatives on the General Appropriations Bill, February 11, 1879. In Allan Nevins, Abram Hewitt, "Consolidating the Western Surveys." Speech in the House of Representatives on the General Appropriations Bill, February 11, 1879. In Allan Nevins, The Selected Writings of Abram Hewitt The Selected Writings of Abram Hewitt (New York, 1937), pp. 209-26. (New York, 1937), pp. 209-26.

5 Samuel Franklin Emmons, "Clarence King, Geologist," in Century a.s.sociation, Samuel Franklin Emmons, "Clarence King, Geologist," in Century a.s.sociation, Clarence King Memoirs. Clarence King Memoirs.

6 Smith, "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey." Smith, "Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the Establishment of the United States Geological Survey."

7 Powell Survey, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 775-6, 792-3. Powell Survey, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 775-6, 792-3.

8 Without making a careful check, I have noted, among the Letters Received of the Powell Survey within the one week of October 7-13, 1878, receipts for the Without making a careful check, I have noted, among the Letters Received of the Powell Survey within the one week of October 7-13, 1878, receipts for the Arid Regions Arid Regions report from the Salt Lake report from the Salt Lake Herald, Herald, the the Rocky Mountain News, Rocky Mountain News, the the Alta California, Alta California, and the San Francisco and the San Francisco Herald, Evening Post, Herald, Evening Post, and and Chronicle. Chronicle. There was evidently a concerted campaign to put review copies of the report into the hands of influential Western editors - an indication that its importance was quite as much political as scientific. There was evidently a concerted campaign to put review copies of the report into the hands of influential Western editors - an indication that its importance was quite as much political as scientific.

9 Powell Survey, Letters Received, VIII, Nos. 268-9, 270-1. Powell Survey, Letters Received, VIII, Nos. 268-9, 270-1.

10 One sample of how this campaign was conducted is contained in Dutton's letter to Professor A. G. Wetherly of the University of Cincinnati, a strong Powell supporter who had offered aid in promoting Powell into the headship of the combined surveys. Through a half dozen careful pages Dutton outlines Powell's policies. These exactly reproduce - in advance - the National Academy's recommendations. Powell Survey, Letters Received, VII, Nos. 139-45, 231. See also Powell's letter to E. W. Ayres of the Kansas City One sample of how this campaign was conducted is contained in Dutton's letter to Professor A. G. Wetherly of the University of Cincinnati, a strong Powell supporter who had offered aid in promoting Powell into the headship of the combined surveys. Through a half dozen careful pages Dutton outlines Powell's policies. These exactly reproduce - in advance - the National Academy's recommendations. Powell Survey, Letters Received, VII, Nos. 139-45, 231. See also Powell's letter to E. W. Ayres of the Kansas City Times Times - an equally careful and detailed summary of the Academy program or of Powell's own Arid Regions proposals, as one wishes to read it. Letters Sent, III, Nos. 54-63. Also Powell to Wetherly, December 31, 1878, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 997-8. - an equally careful and detailed summary of the Academy program or of Powell's own Arid Regions proposals, as one wishes to read it. Letters Sent, III, Nos. 54-63. Also Powell to Wetherly, December 31, 1878, Letters Sent, II, Nos. 997-8.

11 Powell Survey, Letters Received, VIII, No. 86. Powell Survey, Letters Received, VIII, No. 86.

5.