[356] W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_ p. 508. Compare J.W. Wolf, _Beitrage zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Gottingen, 1852-1857), i. 74; J.

Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.

[357] A. Kuhn, _l.c._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508.

[358] _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Konigreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 956.

[359] See above, pp. 116 _sq._, 119.

[360] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 211 _sq._, -- 233; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, pp. 507 _sq._

[361] _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Konigreichs Bayern_, iii.

357.

[362] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 212 _sq._, -- 236.

[363] F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 78 _sq._, ---- 114, 115. The customs observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together by W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 505.

[364] A. Birlinger, _Volksthumliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 82, -- 106; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508.

[365] Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97 _sq._

[366] _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ See further below, vol. ii. pp. 298 _sqq._

[367] J.W. Wolf, _Beitrage sur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 75 _sq._; W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 506.

[368] L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 228.

[369] W. Muller, _Beitrage sur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mahren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 321, 397 _sq._ In Wagstadt, a town of Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from before the church door by the other school children, who pursued him through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton Peter, _Volksthumliches aus osterreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 282 _sq._; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 77 _sq._

[370] _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS.

of John Ramsay, Esq., of Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 439-445. As to the _tein-eigin_ or need-fire, see below, pp. 269 _sqq_. The etymology of the word Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham Dalyell, _The Darker Superst.i.tions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 176 _sq._: "The recognition of the pagan divinity Baal, or Bel, the Sun, is discovered through innumerable etymological sources. In the records of Scottish history, down to the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions were issued from the fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, against kindling _Bailfires_, of which the origin cannot be mistaken. The festival of this divinity was commemorated in Scotland until the latest date." Modern scholars are not agreed as to the derivation of the name Beltane. See Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 268 _sq._; J.A. MacCulloch, _The Religion of the Ancient Celts_ (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 264.

[371] "_Bal-tein_ signifies the _fire of Baal. Baal_ or _Ball_ is the only word in Gaelic for _a globe_. This festival was probably in honour of the sun, whose return, in his apparent annual course, they celebrated, on account of his having such a visible influence, by his genial warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the Caledonians paid a superst.i.tious respect to the sun, as was the practice among many other nations, is evident, not only by the sacrifice at Baltein, but upon many other occasions. When a Highlander goes to bathe, or to drink waters out of a consecrated fountain, he must always approach by going round the place, _from east to west on the south side_, in imitation of the apparent diurnal motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, and the gla.s.s goes round a company, in the course of the sun.

This is called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or the _lucky way_.

The opposite course is the wrong, or the _unlucky_ way. And if a person's meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against his breath, they instantly cry out _deisheal_! which is an e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.i.o.n praying that it may go by the right way" (Rev. J. Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xi. 621 note). Compare J.G. Campbell, _Superst.i.tions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229 _sq._: "_The Right-hand Turn_ (_Deiseal_).-- This was the most important of all the observances. The rule is '_Deiseal_ (i.e. the right-hand turn) for everything,' and consists in doing all things with a motion corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to right. This is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is common with many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the Highlands were very particular about it. The coffin was taken _deiseal_ about the grave, when about to be lowered; boats were turned to sea according to it, and drams are given to the present day to a company. When putting a straw rope on a house or corn-stack, if the a.s.sistant went _tuaitheal_ (i.e. against the course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down and thrash him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round it _deiseal_ to secure luck in the object of his visit. After milking a cow the dairy-maid should strike it _deiseal_ with the shackle, saying 'out and home' (_mach 'us dachaigh_). This secures its safe return. The word is from _deas_, right-hand, and _iul_, direction, and of itself contains no allusion to the sun." Compare M.

Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J.

Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 612 _sq._: "There was an ancient custom in the island of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle, etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in his right hand, and went round, and it was called _dessil_, from the right hand, which in the ancient language is called _dess_.... There is another way of the _dessil_, or carrying fire round about women before they are churched, after child-bearing; and it is used likewise about children until they are christened; both which are performed in the morning and at night. This is only practised now by some of the ancient midwives: I enquired their reason for this custom, which I told them was altogether unlawful; this disobliged them mightily, insomuch that they would give me no satisfaction. But others, that were of a more agreeable temper, told me that fire-round was an effectual means to preserve both the mother and the infant from the power of evil spirits, who are ready at such times to do mischief, and sometimes carry away the infant; and when they get them once in their possession, return them poor meagre skeletons; and these infants are said to have voracious appet.i.tes, constantly craving for meat. In this case it was usual with those who believed that their children were thus taken away, to dig a grave in the fields upon quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy skeleton till next morning; at which time the parents went to the place, where they doubted not to find their own child instead of this skeleton.

Some of the poorer sort of people in these islands retain the custom of performing these rounds sun-ways about the persons of their benefactors three times, when they bless them, and wish good success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful when they set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about sun-ways; and if this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may prove unfortunate." Probably the superst.i.tion was based entirely on the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders, compare J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 304: "Both the sun (_a Ghrian_) and moon (_a Ghealach_) are feminine in Gaelic, and the names are simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace of a Sun-G.o.d or Moon-G.o.ddess." As to the etymology of Beltane, see above, p. 149 note.

[372] Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister of Callander), in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xi.

620 _sq._

[373] Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," in John Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.

[374] Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, v. 84.

[375] Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xv. 517 note.

[376] Rev. Walter Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes," _Folk-lore_, vi.

(1895) pp. 2 _sq._ The Beltane cakes with the nine k.n.o.bs on them remind us of the cakes with twelve k.n.o.bs which the Athenians offered to Cronus and other deities (see _The Scapegoat_, p. 351). The King of the Bean on Twelfth Night was chosen by means of a cake, which was broken in as many pieces as there were persons present, and the person who received the piece containing a bean or a coin became king. See J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 22 _sq.; The Scapegoat_, pp. 313 _sqq._

[377] Shaw, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which Shaw's description applies is what he calls the province or country of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.

[378] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 167.

[379] A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p. 41. The St. Michael's cake (_Struthan na h'eill Micheil_), referred to in the text, is described as "the size of a quern" in circ.u.mference. "It is kneaded simply with water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with b.u.t.termilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which tradition a.s.sociates with the female s.e.x, is that of a triangle with the corners cut off. A _struhthan_ or _struhdhan_ (the word seems to be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the household, including servants and herds.

When harvest is late, an early patch of corn is mown on purpose for the _struthan_" (A. Goodrich-Freer, _op. cit._ pp. 44. _sq._.)

[380] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 22-24.

[381] Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folklore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

[382] Joseph Train, _An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314 _sq._

[383] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 309; _id._, "The Coligny Calendar," _Proceedings of the British Academy, 1909-1910_, pp. 261 _sq._ See further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 53 _sq._

[384] Professor Frank Granger, "Early Man," in _The Victoria History of the County of Nottingham_, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906) pp.

186 _sq._

[385] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 310; _id._, "Manx Folk-lore and Superst.i.tions," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) pp. 303 _sq._

[386] P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 290 _sq._, referring to Kuno Meyer, _Hibernia Minora_, p. 49 and _Glossary_, 23.

[387] J.B. Bury, _The Life of St. Patrick_ (London, 1905), pp. 104 _sqq._

[388] Above, p. 147.

[389] Geoffrey Keating, D.D., _The History of Ireland_, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300 _sq._

[390] (Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folk-lore and Superst.i.tion," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 303; _id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 291: "The custom of driving cattle through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living memory." In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael, _Carmina Gadelica_, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, "I saw it done in Ireland."

[391] L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 233 _sq._

[392] Reinsberg-Duringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Bohmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 211 _sq._; Br. Jelinek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Bohmens," _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, _Sitte, Branch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westbohmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 71.

[393] J.A.E. Kohler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superst.i.tions relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, "In the name of G.o.d the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." Thus the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E.

Sommer, _Sagen, Marchen und Gebrauche aus Sachsen und Thuringen_ (Halle, 1846), pp. 148 _sq.; Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 116.

[394] See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 158 _sqq._

[395] As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence collected in the "Specimen Calendarii Gentilis," appended to the _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.

[396] John Mitch.e.l.l Kemble, _The Saxons in England_, New Edition (London, 1876), i. 361 _sq_., quoting "an ancient MS. written in England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50." The pa.s.sage is quoted in part by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 298 _sq._, by R.T. Hampson, _Medii Aevi Kalendarium_ (London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ (appended to the _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ of G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556 _recto: "Solent porro hoc tempore_ [the Eve of St. John the Baptist] _ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejic.u.n.t ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idem etiam modo ab omnibus observatur....

Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo cogitur paulatim descendere_." The substance of the pa.s.sage is repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442 _verso_, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 516.

With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska "it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden buckets, and dishes" (E.W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton Birlinger, _Volksthumliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 297); and Thuringian b.u.mpkins cover up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebrauche aus Thuringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E.B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,*[2] London, 1873, i. 328 _sqq._), we may surmise, on the a.n.a.logy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.

[397] _The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570_, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54 _verso_. As to this work see above, p. 125 note 1.