The amount of external heat that a human being can endure is sometimes remarkable, and the range of temperature compatible with life is none the less extraordinary. The Esquimaux and the inhabitants of the extreme north at times endure a temperature of--60 degrees F., while some of the people living in equatorial regions are apparently healthy at a temperature as high as 130 degrees F., and work in the sun, where the temperature is far higher. In the engine-rooms of some steamers plying in tropical waters temperatures as high as 150 degrees F. have been registered, yet the engineers and the stokers become habituated to this heat and labor in it without apparent suffering. In Turkish baths, by progressively exposing themselves to graduated temperatures, persons have been able to endure a heat considerably above the boiling point, though having to protect their persons from the furniture and floors and walls of the rooms. The hot air in these rooms is intensely dry, provoking profuse perspiration. Sir Joseph Banks remained some time in a room the temperature of which was 211 degrees F., and his own temperature never mounted above normal.

There have been exhibitionists who claimed particular ability to endure intense heats without any visible disadvantage. These men are generally styled "human salamanders," and must not be confounded with the "fire-eaters," who, as a rule, are simply jugglers. Martinez, the so-called "French Salamander," was born in Havana. As a baker he had exposed himself from boyhood to very high temperatures, and he subsequently gave public exhibitions of his extraordinary ability to endure heat. He remained in an oven erected in the middle of the Gardens of Tivoli for fourteen minutes when the temperature in the oven was 338 degrees F. His pulse on entering was 76 and on coming out 130.

He often duplicated this feat before vast a.s.semblages, though hardly ever attaining the same degree of temperature, the thermometer generally varying from 250 degrees F. upward. Chamouni was the celebrated "Russian Salamander," a.s.suming the t.i.tle of "The Incombustible." His great feat was to enter an oven with a raw leg of mutton, not retiring until the meat was well baked. This person eventually lost his life in the performance of this feat; his ashes were conveyed to his native town, where a monument was erected over them. Since the time of these two contemporaneous salamanders there have been many others, but probably none have attained the same notoriety.

In this connection Tillet speaks of some servant girls to a baker who for fifteen minutes supported a temperature of 270 degrees F.; for ten minutes, 279 degrees F.; and for several minutes, 364 degrees F., thus surpa.s.sing Martinez. In the Glasgow Medical Journal, 1859, there is an account of a baker's daughter who remained twelve minutes in an oven at 274 degrees F. Chantrey, the sculptor, and his workman are said to have entered with impunity a furnace of over 320 degrees F.

In some of the savage ceremonies of fire worship the degree of heat endured by the partic.i.p.ants is really remarkable, and even if the rites are performed by skilful juggling, nevertheless, the ability to endure intense heat is worthy of comment. A recent report says:--

"The most remarkable ceremonial of fire worship that survives in this country is practiced by the Navajos. They believe in purification by fire, and to this end they literally wash themselves in it. The feats they perform with it far exceed the most wonderful acts of fire-eating and fire-handling accomplished by civilized jugglers. In preparation for the festival a gigantic heap of dry wood is gathered from the desert. At the appointed moment the great pile of inflammable brush is lighted and in a few moments the whole of it is ablaze. Storms of sparks fly 100 feet or more into the air, and ashes fall about like a shower of snow. The ceremony always takes place at night and the effect of it is both weird and impressive.

"Just when the fire is raging at its hottest a whistle is heard from the outer darkness and a dozen warriors, lithe and lean, dressed simply in narrow white breech-cloths and moccasins and daubed with white earth so as to look like so many living statues, come bounding through the entrance to the corral that incloses the flaming heap. Yelping like wolves, they move slowly toward the fire, bearing aloft slender wands tipped with b.a.l.l.s of eagle-down. Rushing around the fire, always to the left, they begin thrusting their wands toward the fire, trying to burn off the down from the tips. Owing to the intensity of the heat this is difficult to accomplish. One warrior dashes wildly toward the fire and retreats; another lies as close to the ground as a frightened lizard, endeavoring to wriggle himself up to the fire; others seek to catch on their wands the sparks that fly in the air. At last one by one they all succeed in burning the downy b.a.l.l.s from the wands. The test of endurance is very severe, the heat of the fire being so great.

"The remarkable feats, however, are performed in connection with another dance that follows. This is heralded by a tremendous blowing of horns. The noise grows louder and louder until suddenly ten or more men run into the corral, each of them carrying two thick bundles of shredded cedar bark.

"Four times they run around the fire waving the bundles, which are then lighted. Now begins a wild race around the fire, the rapid running causing the brands to throw out long streamers of flames over the hands and arms of the dancers. The latter apply the brands to their own nude bodies and to the bodies of their comrades in front. A warrior will seize the flaming ma.s.s as if it were a sponge, and, keeping close to the man he is pursuing, will rub his back with it as if bathing him.

The sufferer in turn catches up with the man in front of him and bathes him in flame. From time to time the dancers sponge their own backs with the flaming brands. When a brand is so far consumed that it can no longer be held it is dropped and the dancers disappear from the corral.

The spectators pick up the flaming bunches thus dropped and bathe their own hands in the fire.

"No satisfactory explanation seems to be obtainable as to the means by which the dancers in this extraordinary performance are able to escape injury. Apparently they do not suffer from any burns. Doubtless some protection is afforded by the earth that is applied to their bodies."

Spontaneous combustion of the human body, although doubted by the medical men of this day, has for many years been the subject of much discussion; only a few years ago, among the writers on this subject, there were as many credulous as there were skeptics. There is, however, no reliable evidence to support the belief in the spontaneous combustion of the body. A few apochryphal cases only have been recorded. The opinion that the tissues of drunkards might be so saturated with alcohol as to render the body combustible is disproved by the simple experiment of placing flesh in spirits for a long time and then trying to burn it. Liebig and others found that flesh soaked in alcohol would burn only until the alcohol was consumed. That various substances ignite spontaneously is explained by chemic phenomena, the conditions of which do not exist in the human frame. Watkins in speaking of the inflammability of the human body remarks that on one occasion he tried to consume the body of a pirate given to him by a U.

S. Marshal. He built a rousing fire and piled wood on all night, and had not got the body consumed by the forenoon of the following day.

Quite a feasible reason for supposed spontaneous human combustion is to be found in several cases quoted by Taylor, in which persons falling asleep, possibly near a fire, have been accidentally ignited, and becoming first stupefied by the smoke, and then suffocated, have been burned to charcoal without awaking. Drunkenness or great exhaustion may also explain certain cases. In substantiation of the possibility of Taylor's instances several prominent physiologists have remarked that persons have endured severe burns during sleep and have never wakened.

There is an account of a man who lay down on the top of a lime kiln, which was fired during his sleep, and one leg was burned entirely off without awaking the man, a fact explained by the very slow and gradual increase of temperature.

The theories advanced by the advocates of spontaneous human combustion are very ingenious and deserve mention here. An old authority has said: "Our blood is of such a nature, as also our lymph and bile: all of which, when dried by art, flame like spirit of wine at the approach of the least fire and burn away to ashes." Lord Bacon mentions spontaneous combustion, and Marcellus Donatus says that in the time of G.o.defroy of Bouillon there were people of a certain locality who supposed themselves to have been burning of an invisible fire in their entrails, and he adds that some cut off a hand or a foot when the burning began, that it should go no further. What may have been the malady with which these people suffered must be a matter of conjecture.

Overton, in a paper on this subject, remarks that in the "Memoirs of the Royal Society of Paris," 1751, there is related an account of a butcher who, opening a diseased beef, was burned by a flame which issued from the maw of the animal; there was first an explosion which rose to a height of five feet and continued to blaze several minutes with a highly offensive odor. Morton saw a flame emanate from beneath the skin of a hog at the instant of making an incision through it.

Ruysch, the famous Dutch physician, remarks that he introduced a hollow bougie into a woman's stomach he had just opened, and he observed a vapor issuing from the mouth of the tube, and this lit on contact with the atmosphere. This is probably an exaggeration of the properties of the hydrogen sulphid found in the stomach. There is an account of a man of forty-three, a gross feeder, who was particularly fond of fats and a victim of psoriasis palmaria, who on going to bed one night, after extinguishing the light in the room, was surprised to find himself enveloped in a phosph.o.r.escent halo; this continued for several days and recurred after further indiscretions in diet. It is well known that there are insects and other creatures of the lower animal kingdom which possess the peculiar quality of phosph.o.r.escence.

There are numerous cases of spontaneous combustion of the human body reported by the older writers. Bartholinus mentions an instance after the person had drunk too much wine. Fouquet mentions a person ignited by lightning. Schrader speaks of a person from whose mouth and fauces after a debauch issued fire. Schurig tells of flames issuing from the v.u.l.v.a, and Moscati records the same occurrence in parturition, Sinibaldust, Borellus, and Bierling have also written on this subject, and the Ephemerides contains a number of instances.

In 1763 Bianchini, Prebendary of Verona, published an account of the death of Countess Cornelia Bandi of Cesena, who in her sixty-second year was consumed by a fire kindled in her own body. In explanation Bianchini said that the fire was caused in the entrails by the inflamed effluvia of the blood, by the juices and fermentation in the stomach, and, lastly, by fiery evaporations which exhaled from the spirits of wine, brandy, etc. In the Gentleman's Magazine, 1763, there is recorded an account of three n.o.blemen who, in emulation, drank great quant.i.ties of strong liquor, and two of them died scorched and suffocated by a flame forcing itself from the stomach. There is an account of a poor woman in Paris in the last century who drank plentifully of spirits, for three years taking virtually nothing else. Her body became so combustible that one night while lying on a straw couch she was spontaneously burned to ashes and smoke. The evident cause of this combustion is too plain to be commented on. In the Lancet, 1845, there are two cases reported in which shortly before death luminous breath has been seen to issue from the mouth.

There is an instance reported of a professor of mathematics of thirty-five years of age and temperate, who, feeling a pain in his left leg, discovered a pale flame about the size of a ten-cent piece issuing therefrom. As recent as March, 1850, in a Court of a.s.sizes in Darmstadt during the trial of John Stauff, accused of the murder of the Countess Goerlitz, the counsel for the defense advanced the theory of spontaneous human combustion, and such eminent doctors as von Siebold, Graff, von Liebig, and other prominent members of the Hessian medical fraternity were called to comment on its possibility; princ.i.p.ally on their testimony a conviction and life-imprisonment was secured. In 1870 there was a woman of thirty-seven, addicted to alcoholic liquors, who was found in her room with her viscera and part of her limbs consumed by fire, but the hair and clothes intact. According to Walford, in the Scientific American for 1870, there was a case reported by Flowers of Louisiana of a man a hard drinker, who was sitting by a fire surrounded by his Christmas guests, when suddenly flames of a bluish tint burst from his mouth and nostrils and he was soon a corpse. Flowers states that the body remained extremely warm for a much longer period than usual.

Statistics.--From an examination of 28 cases of spontaneous combustion, Jacobs makes the following summary:--

(1) It has always occurred in the human living body.

(2) The subjects were generally old persons.

(3) It was noticed more frequently in women than in men.

(4) All the persons were alone at the time of occurrence.

(5) They all led an idle life.

(6) They were all corpulent or intemperate.

(7) Most frequently at the time of occurrence there was a light and some ignitible substance in the room.

(8) The combustion was rapid and was finished in from one to seven hours.

(9) The room where the combustion took place was generally filled with a thick vapor and the walls covered with a thick, carbonaceous substance.

(10) The trunk was usually the part most frequently destroyed; some part of the head and extremities remained.

(11) With but two exceptions, the combustion occurred in winter and in the northern regions.

Magnetic, Phosph.o.r.escent, and Electric Anomalies.--There have been certain persons who have appeared before the public under such names as the "human magnet," the "electric lady," etc. There is no doubt that some persons are supercharged with magnetism and electricity. For instance, it is quite possible for many persons by drawing a rubber comb through the hair to produce a crackling noise, and even produce sparks in the dark. Some exhibitionists have been genuine curiosities of this sort, while others by skilfully arranged electric apparatus are enabled to perform their feats. A curious case was reported in this country many years ago, which apparently emanates from an authoritative source. On the 25th of January, 1837, a certain lady became suddenly and unconsciously charged with electricity. Her newly acquired power was first exhibited when pa.s.sing her hand over the face of her brother; to the astonishment of both, vivid electric sparks pa.s.sed from the ends of each finger. This power continued with augmented force from the 25th of January to the last of February, but finally became extinct about the middle of May of the same year.

Schneider mentions a strong, healthy, dark-haired Capuchin monk, the removal of whose head-dress always induced a number of shining, crackling sparks from his hair or scalp. Bartholinus observed a similar peculiarity in Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. In another case luminous sparks were given out whenever the patient pa.s.sed urine. Marsh relates two cases of phthisis in which the heads of the patients were surrounded by phosph.o.r.escent lights. Kaster mentions an instance in which light was seen in the perspiration and on the body linen after violent exertion.

After exertion Jurine, Guyton, and Driessen observed luminous urine pa.s.sed by healthy persons, and Na.s.se mentions the same phenomenon in a phthisical patient. Percy and Stokes have observed phosph.o.r.escence in a carcinomatous ulcer.

There is a description of a Zulu boy exhibited in Edinburgh in 1882 whose body was so charged with electricity that he could impart a shock to any of his patrons. He was about six-and-a-half years of age, bright, happy, and spoke English thoroughly well. From infancy he had been distinguished for this faculty, variable with the state of the atmosphere. As a rule, the act of shaking hands was generally attended by a quivering sensation like that produced by an electric current, and contact with his tongue gave a still sharper shock.

Sir Charles Bell has made extensive investigation of the subject of human magnetism and is probably the best authority on the subject, but many celebrated scientists have studied it thoroughly. In the Pittsburg Medical Review there is a description of a girl of three and a half, a blonde, and extremely womanly for her age, who possessed a wonderful magnetic power. Metal spoons would adhere to her finger-tips, nose, or chin. The child, however, could not pick up a steel needle, an article generally very sensitive to the magnet; nor would a penny stick to any portion of her body.

Only recently there was exhibited through this country a woman named Annie May Abbott, who styled herself the "Georgia Electric Lady." This person gave exhibitions of wonderful magnetic power, and invited the inspection and discussion of medical men. Besides her chief accomplishment she possessed wonderful strength and was a skilled equilibrist. By placing her hands on the sides of a chair upon which a heavy man was seated, she would raise it without apparent effort. She defied the strongest person in the audience to take from her hand a stick which she had once grasped. Recent reports say that Miss Abbott is amusing herself now with the strong men of China and j.a.pan. The j.a.panese wrestlers, whose physical strength is celebrated the world over, were unable to raise Miss Abbott from the floor, while with the tips of her fingers she neutralized their most strenuous efforts to lift even light objects, such as a cane, from a table. The possibilities, in this advanced era of electric mechanism, make fraud and deception so easy that it is extremely difficult to p.r.o.nounce on the genuineness of any of the modern exhibitions of human electricity.

The Effects of Cold.--Gmelin, the famous scientist and investigator of this subject, says that man has lived where the temperature falls as low as -157 degrees F. Habit is a marked factor in this endurance. In Russia men and women work with their b.r.e.a.s.t.s and arms uncovered in a temperature many degrees below zero and without attention to the fact.

In the most rigorous winter the inhabitants of the Alps work with bare b.r.e.a.s.t.s and the children sport about in the snow. Wrapping himself in his pelisse the Russian sleeps in the snow. This influence of habit is seen in the inability of intruders in northern lands to endure the cold, which has no effect on the indigenous people. On their way to besiege a Norwegian stronghold in 1719, 7000 Swedes perished in the snows and cold of their neighboring country. On the retreat from Prague in 1742, the French army, under the rigorous sky of Bohemia, lost 4000 men in ten days. It is needless to speak of the thousands lost in Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812.

Pinel has remarked that the insane are less liable to the effects of cold than their normal fellows, and mentions the escape of a naked maniac, who, without any visible after-effect, in January, even, when the temperature was -4 degrees F., ran into the snow and gleefully rubbed his body with ice. In the French journals in 1814 there is the record of the rescue of a naked crazy woman who was found in the Pyrenees, and who had apparently suffered none of the ordinary effects of cold.

Psychologic Effects of Cold.--Lambert says that the mind acts more quickly in cold weather, and that there has been a notion advanced that the emotion of hatred is much stronger in cold weather, a theory exemplified by the a.s.sa.s.sination of Paul of Russia, the execution of Charles of England, and that of Louis of France. Emotions, such as love, bravery, patriotism, etc., together with diverse forms of excitement, seem to augment the ability of the human body to endure cold.

Cold seems to have little effect on the generative function. In both Sweden, Norway, and other Northern countries the families are as large, if not larger, than in other countries. Cold undoubtedly imparts vigor, and, according to DeThou, Henry III lost his effeminacy and love of pleasure in winter and reacquired a spirit of progress and reformation.

Zimmerman has remarked that in a rigorous winter the lubberly Hollander is like the gayest Frenchman. Cold increases appet.i.te, and Plutarch says Brutus experienced intense bulimia while in the mountains, barely escaping perishing. With full rations the Greek soldiers under Xenophon suffered intense hunger as they traversed the snow-clad mountains of Armenia.

Beaupre remarks that those who have the misfortune to be buried under the snow perish less quickly than those who are exposed to the open air, his observations having been made during the retreat of the French army from Moscow. In Russia it is curious to see fish frozen stiff, which, after transportation for great distances, return to life when plunged into cold water.

Sudden death from cold baths and cold drinks has been known for many centuries. Mauriceau mentions death from cold baptism on the head, and Graseccus, Scaliger, Rush, Schenck, and Velschius mention deaths from cold drinks. Aventii, Fabricius Hilda.n.u.s, the Ephemerides, and Curry relate instances of a fatal issue following the ingestion of cold water by an individual in a superheated condition. Cridland describes a case of sudden insensibility following the drinking of a cold fluid. It is said that Alexander the Great narrowly escaped death from a constrictive spasm, due to the fact that while in a copious sweat he plunged into the river Cydnus. Tissot gives an instance of a man dying at a fountain after a long draught on a hot day. Hippocrates mentions a similar fact, and there are many modern instances.

The ordinary effects of cold on the skin locally and the system generally will not be mentioned here, except to add the remark of Captain Wood that in Greenland, among his party, could be seen ulcerations, blisters, and other painful lesions of the skin. In Siberia the Russian soldiers cover their noses and ears with greased paper to protect them against the cold. The Laplanders and Samoiedes, to avoid the dermal lesions caused by cold (possibly augmented by the friction of the wind and beating of snow), anoint their skins with rancid fish oil, and are able to endure temperatures as low as -40 degrees F. In the retreat of the 10,000 Xenophon ordered all his soldiers to grease the parts exposed to the air.

Effects of Working in Compressed Air.--According to a writer in Ca.s.sier's Magazine, the highest working pressures recorded have been close to 50 pounds per square inch, but with extreme care in the selection of men, and corresponding care on the part of the men, it is very probable that this limit may be considerably exceeded. Under average conditions the top limit may be placed at about 45 pounds, the time of working, according to conditions, varying from four to six hours per shift. In the cases in which higher pressures might be used, the shifts for the men should be restricted to two of two hours each, separated by a considerable interval. As an example of heavy pressure work under favorable conditions as to ventilation, without very bad effects on the men, Messrs. Sooysmith & Company had an experience with a work on which men were engaged in six-hour shifts, separated into two parts by half-hour intervals for lunch. This work was excavation in open, seamy rock, carried on for several weeks under about 45 pounds pressure. The character of the material through which the caisson is being sunk or upon which it may be resting at any time bears quite largely upon the ability of the men to stand the pressure necessary to hold back the water at that point. If the material be so porous as to permit a considerable leakage of air through it, there will naturally result a continuous change of air in the working chamber, and a corresponding relief of the men from the deleterious effects which are nearly always produced by over-used air.

From Strasburg in 1861 Bucuoy reports that during the building of a bridge at Kehl laborers had to work in compressed air, and it was found that the respirations lost their regularity; there were sometimes intense pains in the ears, which after a while ceased. It required a great effort to speak at 2 1/2 atmospheres, and it was impossible to whistle. Perspiration was very profuse. Those who had to work a long time lost their appet.i.tes, became emaciated, and congestion of the lung and brain was observed. The movements of the limbs were easier than in normal air, though afterward muscular and rheumatic pains were often observed.

The peculiar and extraordinary development of the remaining special senses when one of the number is lost has always been a matter of great interest. Deaf people have always been remarkable for their acuteness of vision, touch, and smell. Blind persons, again, almost invariably have the sense of hearing, touch, and what might be called the senses of location and temperature exquisitely developed. This subst.i.tution of the senses is but; an example of the great law of compensation which we find throughout nature.

Jonston quotes a case in the seventeenth century of a blind man who, it is said, could tell black from white by touch alone; several other instances are mentioned in a chapter ent.i.tled "De compensatione naturae monstris facta." It must, however, be held impossible that blind people can thus distinguish colors in any proper sense of the words. Different colored yarns, for example, may have other differences of texture, etc., that would be manifest to the sense of touch. We know of one case in which the different colors were accurately distinguished by a blind girl, but only when located in customary and definite positions. Le Cat speaks of a blind organist, a native of Holland, who still played the organ as well as ever. He could distinguish money by touch, and it is also said that he made himself familiar with colors. He was fond of playing cards, but became such a dangerous opponent, because in shuffling he could tell what cards and hands had been dealt, that he was never allowed to handle any but his own cards.

It is not only in those who are congenitally deficient in any of the senses that the remarkable examples of compensation are seen, but sometimes late in life these are developed. The celebrated sculptor, Daniel de Volterre, became blind after he had obtained fame, and notwithstanding the deprivation of his chief sense he could, by touch alone, make a statue in clay after a model. Le Cat also mentions a woman, perfectly deaf, who without any instruction had learned to comprehend anything said to her by the movements of the lips alone. It was not necessary to articulate any sound, but only to give the l.a.b.i.al movements. When tried in a foreign language she was at a loss to understand a single word.

Since the establishment of the modern high standard of blind asylums and deaf-and-dumb inst.i.tutions, where so many ingenious methods have been developed and are practiced in the education of their inmates, feats which were formerly considered marvelous are within the reach of all those under tuition To-day, those born deaf-mutes are taught to speak and to understand by the movements of the lips alone, and the blind read, become expert workmen, musicians, and even draughtsmen. D.

D. Wood of Philadelphia, although one of the finest organists in the country, has been totally blind for years. It is said that he acquires new compositions with almost as great facility as one not afflicted with his infirmity. "Blind Tom," a semi-idiot and blind negro achieved world-wide notoriety by his skill upon the piano.