Examine graphite, anthracite coal, bituminous coal, cannel coal, wood, gas carbon, c.o.ke.

40. Preparation of C.

Experiment 26.--Hold a porcelain dish or a plate in the flame of a candle, or of a Bunsen burner with the openings at the bottom closed. After a minute examine the deposit. It is carbon, i.e.

lamp- black or soot, which is a const.i.tuent of gas, or of the candle. Open the valve at the base of the Bunsen burner, and hold the deposit in the flame. Does the C gradually disappear? If so, it has been burned to CO2. C + 2 O = CO2. Is C a combustible element?

Experiment 27.--Ignite a splinter, and observe the combustion and the smoke, if any. Try to collect some C in the same way as before.

With plenty of O and high enough temperature, all the C is burned to CO2, whether in gas, candle, or wood. CO2 is an invisible gas.

The porcelain, when held in the flame, cools the C below the point at which it burns, called the kindling-point, and hence it is deposited. The greater part of smoke is unburned carbon.

Experiment 28.--Hold an inverted dry t.t. or receiver over the flame of a burning candle, and look for any moisture (H2O). What two elements are shown by these experiments to exist in the candle? The same two are found in wood and in gas. Experiment 29.--Put into a small Hessian crucible (Fig. 18) some pieces of wood 2 or 3 cm long, cover with sand, and heat the crucible strongly. When smoking stops, cool the crucible, remove the contents, and examine the charcoal. The gases have been driven off from the wood, and the greater part of what is left is C.

Experiment 30.--Put 1 g. of sugar into a porcelain crucible, and heat till the sugar is black. C is left. See Experiment 5. Remove the C with a strong solution of sodium hydrate (page 208).

41. Allotropic Forms.--Carbon is peculiar in that it occurs in at least three allotropic, i.e. different, forms, all having different properties. These are diamond, graphite, and amorphous --not crystalline--carbon. The latter includes charcoal, lamp- black, bone-black, gas carbon, c.o.ke, and mineral coal. All these forms of C have one property in common; they burn in O at a high temperature, forming CO2. This proves that each is the element C, though it is often mixed with some impurities.

Allotropy, or allotropism, is the quality which an element often has of appearing under various forms, with different properties.

The forms of C are a good ill.u.s.tration.

42. Diamond is the purest C; but even this in burning leaves a little ash, showing that it is not quite pure. It is a rare mineral, found in India, South Africa, and Brazil, and is the hardest and most highly refractive to light of all minerals.

Boron is harder. [Footnote: B, not occurring free, is not a mineral.] When heated in the electric arc, at very high temperatures, diamond swells and turns black. 43. Graphite, or Plumbago, is One of the Softest Minerals.--It is black and infusible, and oxidizes only at very high temperatures, higher than the diamond. It contains from 95 to 98 per cent C. Graphite is found in the oldest rock formations, in the United States and Siberia. It is artificially formed in the iron furnace. Graphite is employed for crucibles where great heat is required, for a lubricant, for making metal castings, and, mixed with clay, for lead-pencils. It is often called black-lead.

44. Amorphous Carbon comprises the following varieties.

Charcoal is made by heating wood, for a long time, out of contact with the air. The volatile gases are thus driven off from the wood; what is left is C, and a small quant.i.ty of mineral matter which remains as ash when the coal is burned.

45. Lamp-black is prepared as in Experiment 26, or by igniting turpentine (C1OH16), naphtha, and various oils, and collecting the C of the smoke. It is used for making printers' ink, India ink, etc. A very pure variety is obtained from natural gas.

Bone-black, or animal charcoal, is obtained by distilling bones, i.e. by heating them in retorts into which no air is admitted.

The C is the charred residue.

Gas Carbon is formed in the retorts of the gas-house. See page 182. It is used to some extent in electrical work.

46. c.o.ke is the residue left after distilling soft coal. It is tolerably pure carbon, with some ash and a little volatile matter. It burns without flame. 47. Mineral Coal is fossilized wood or other vegetable matter. Millions of years ago trees and other vegetation covered the earth as they do to-day. In certain places they slowly sank, together with the land, into the interior of the earth, were covered with sand, rock, and water, and heated from the earth's interior. A slow distillation took place, which drove off some of the gases, and converted vegetable matter into coal. All the coal dug from the earth represents vegetable life of a former period. Millions of years were required for the transformation; but the same change is in progress now, where peat beds are forming from turf.

Coal is found in all countries, the largest beds being in the United States. From the nature of its formation, coal varies much in purity.

Anthracite, or hard coal, is purest in carbon, some varieties having from 90 to 95 per cent. This represents most complete distillation in the earth; i.e. the gases have mostly been driven off. It is much used in New England.

48. Bituminous, or soft coal, crocks the hands, and burns rapidly with much flame and smoke. The greater part of the coal in the earth is bituminous. It represents incomplete distillation.

Hence, by artificially distilling it, illuminating gas is made.

See page 180. It is far less pure C than anthracite.

49. Cannel Coal is a variety of bituminous coal which can be ignited like a candle. This is because so many of the gases are still left, and it shows cannel to be less pure C than bituminous coal.

50. Lignite, Peat, Turf, etc., are still less pure varieties of C. Construct a table of the naturally occurring forms of this element, in the order of their purity. Carbon forms the basis of all vegetable and animal life; it is found in many rocks, mineral oils, asphaltum, natural gas, and in the air as CO2.

51. C a Reducing Agent.

Experiment 31.--Put into a small ignition-tube a mixture of 4 or 5 g. of powdered copper oxide (CuO), with half its bulk of powdered charcoal. Heat strongly for ten or fifteen minutes.

Examine the contents for metallic copper. With which element of CuO has C united? The reaction may be written: Cu0 + C = CO + Cu.

Complete and explain.

A Reducing, or Deoxidizing, Agent is a substance which takes away oxygen from a compound. C is the most common and important reducing agent, being used for this purpose in smelting iron and other ores, making water-gas, etc.

An Oxidizing Agent is a substance that gives up its O to a reducing agent. What oxidizing agent in the above experiment?

52. C a Decolorizer.

Experiment 32.--Put 3 or 4 g. of bone-black into a receiver, and add 10 or 15 cc.of cochineal solution. Shake this thoroughly, covering the bottle with the hand. Then pour the whole on a filter paper, and examine the filtrate. If all the color is not removed, filter again. What property of C is shown by this experiment? Any other coloring solution may be tried.

The decolorizing power of charcoal is an important characteristic. Animal charcoal is used in large quant.i.ties for decolorizing sugar. The coloring matter is taken out mechanically by the C, there being no chemical action. 53. C a Disinfectant.

Experiment 33.--Repeat the previous experiment, adding a solution of H2S3 i.e. hydrogen sulphide, in water, instead of cochineal solution. See page 120. Note whether the bad odor is removed. If not, repeat.

Charcoal has the property of absorbing large quant.i.ties of many gases. Ill-smelling and noxious gases are condensed in the pores of the C; O is taken in at the same time from the air, and these gases are there oxidized and rendered odorless and harmless. For this reason charcoal is much used in hospitals and sick-rooms, as a disinfectant. This property of condensing O, as well as other gases, is shown in the experiment below.

54. C an Absorber of Gases and a Retainer of Heat.

Experiment 34.--Put a piece of phosphorus of the size of a pea, and well dried, on a thick paper. Cover it well with bone-black, and look for combustion after a while. O has been condensed from the air, absorbed by the C, and thus communicated to the P. Burn all the P at last.

VALENCE.

55. The Symbols NaCl and MgCl2 differ in two ways.--What are they? Let us see why the atom of Mg unites with two Cl atoms, while that of Na takes but one. If the atoms of two elements attract each other, there must be either a general attraction all over their surfaces, or else some one or more points of attraction. Suppose the latter to be true, each atom must have one or more poles or bonds of attraction, like the poles of a magnet. Different elements differ in their number of bonds. Na has one, which may be written graphically Na-; Cl has one, -Cl.

When Na unites with Cl, the bonds of each element balance, as follows: Na-Cl. The element Mg, however, has two such bonds, as Mg= or -Mg-. When Mg unites with Cl, in order to balance, or saturate, the bonds, it is evident that two atoms of Cl must be used, as Cl-Mg-Cl, or MgCl2.

A compound or an element, in order to exist, must have no free bonds. In organic chemistry the exceptions to this rule are very numerous, and, in fact, we do not know that atoms have bonds at all; but we can best explain the phenomena by supposing them, and for a general statement we may say that there must be no free bonds. In binaries the bonds of each element must balance.

56. The Valence, Quantivalence, of an Element is its Combining Power Measured by Bonds.--H, having the least number of bonds, one, is taken as the unit. Valence has always to be taken into account in writing the symbol of a compound. It is often written above and after the elements [i.e. written like an exponent], as K^I, Mg^II.

An element having a valence of one is a monad; of two, a dyad; three, a triad; four, tetrad; five, pentad; six, hexad, etc. It is also said to be monovalent, di- or bivalent, etc. This theory of bonds shows why an atom cannot exist alone. It would have free or unused bonds, and hence must combine with its fellow to form a molecule, in case of an element as well as in that of a compound.

This is ill.u.s.trated by these graphic symbols in which there are no free bonds: H-H, O=O, N[3-bond symbol]N, C[4-bond symbol]C. A graphic symbol shows apparent molecular structure.

After all, how do we know that there are twice as many Cl atoms in the chloride of magnesium as in that of sodium? The compounds have been a.n.a.lyzed over and over again, and have been found to correspond to the symbols MgCl2 and NaCl. This will be better understood after studying the chapter on atomic weights. In writing the symbol for the union of H with O, if we take an atom of each, the bonds do not balance, H-=O, the former having one; the latter, two. Evidently two atoms of H are needed, as H-O-H, or

H = O , or H2O. In the union of Zn and O, each has two bonds; H

hence they unite atom with atom, Zn = O, or ZnO.

Write the grapbic and the common symbols for the union of H^I and Cl^I; of K^I and Br^I; Ag^I and O^II; Na^I and S^II; H^I and P^III. Study valences. It will be seen that some elements have a variable quantivalence. Sn has either 2 or 4; P has 3 or 5. It usually varies by two for a given element, as though a pair of bonds sometimes saturated each other;. e.g. =Sn=, a quantivalence of 4, and |Sn=, a quantivalence of 2. There are, therefore, two oxides of tin, SnO and SnO2, or Sn=O and O=Sn=O. Write symbols for the two chlorides of tin; two oxides of P; two oxides of a.r.s.enic.

The chlorides of iron are FeCl2 and Fe2Cl6. In the latter, it might be supposed that the quantivalence of Fe is 3, but the graphic symbol shows it to be 4. It is called a pseudo-triad, or false triad. Cr and Al are also pseudo-triads.

Cl Cl | | Cl--Fe--Fe--Cl | | Cl Cl

Write formulae for two oxides of iron; the oxide of Al.

57. A Radical is a Group of Elements which has no separate existence, but enters into combination like a single atom; e.g.