C,H61.2)luminants.

CZH42.5) Cannel coal contains more of C022) impurities. the heavy bydro-carbons, CnH2n, N, etc. 2) etc., than the ordinary bituminous 100 coal. Ten per cent of the coal should be cannel; naphtha is, however, often employed to subserve the same purpose, one ton of ordinary bituminous coal requiring four gallons of oil.

In Boston, 7,000,000 cubic feet of gas have been burned in one day, consuming 500 tons of coal; the average is not more than half that quant.i.ty. Of the other products, c.o.ke is employed for heating purposes, gas carbon is used to some extent in electrical work, and coal-tar is the source of very many artificial products that were formerly only of natural origin. NH3, is the main source of ammonium salts, and S is made into H2SO4.

307. Natural Gas occurs near Pittsburg, Pa., and in many other places, in immense quant.i.ties. It is not only employed to light the streets and houses, but is used for fires and in iron and gla.s.s manufactories. It is estimated that 600,000,000 cubic feet are burned, saving 10,000 tons of coal daily in Pittsburg, Only half a dozen factories now use coal. More than half the gas is wasted through safety valves, on account of the great pressure on the pipes as it issues from the earth.

These reservoirs of natural gas very frequently occur in sandstone, usually in the vicinity of coal-beds, but sometimes remote from them. In all cases the origin of the gas is thought to be in the destructive distillation, extending through long geological periods, of coal or of other vegetable or animal matter in the earth's interior.

Natural gas varies in composition, and even in the same well, from day to day; it consists chiefly of CH4, with some other hydro-carbons.

CHAPTER LVI.

ALCOHOL.

308. Fermented Liquor.

Experiment 130.--Introduce 20 cc.of mola.s.ses into a flask of 200 cc, fill it with water to the neck, and put in half a cake of yeast. Fit to this a d.t., and pa.s.s the end of it into a t.t.

holding a clear solution of lime water. Leave in a warm place for two or three days. Then look for a turbidity in the lime water, and account for it. See whether the liquid in the flask is sweet.

The sugar should be changed to alcohol and CO2. This is fermented liquor; it contains a small percentage of alcohol.

309. Distilled Liquor. Experiment 131.--Attach the flask used in the last experiment to the apparatus for distilling water (Fig.

32), and distil not more than one-fifth of the liquid, leaving the rest in the flask. The greater part of the alcohol will pa.s.s over. To obtain it all, at least half of the liquid must be distilled; what pa.s.ses over towards the last is mostly water.

Taste and smell the distillate. Put some into an e.d. and touch a lighted match to it. If it does not burn, redistil half of the distillate and try to ignite the product. Try the combustibility of commercial alcohol; of Jamaica ginger, or of any other liquid known to contain alcohol.

310. Effect on the System.

Experiment 132.--Put a little of the white of egg into an e.d. or a beaker; cover it with strong alcohol and note the effect.

Strong alcohol has the same coagulating action on the brain and on the tissues generally, when taken into the system, absorbing water from them, hardening them, and contracting them in bulk.

311. Affinity for Water.

Experiment 133.--To show the contraction in mixing alcohol and water, measure exactly 5cc.of alcohol and 5cc.of water. Pour them together, and presently measure the mixture. The volume is diminished. A strip of parchment soaked in water till it is limp, then dipped into strong alcohol, becomes again stiff, owing to the attraction of alcohol for water.

312. Purity.--The most important alcohols are methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol. The former, wood spirit, is obtained in an impure state by distilling wood; it is used to dissolve resins, fats, oils, etc., and to make aniline. It is poisonous, as are the others.

Ethyl alcohol, spirit of wine, is the commercial article. It is prepared by fermenting glucose, and distilling the product. It boils at 78 degrees, vaporizing 22 degrees lower than water, from which it can be separated by fractional distillation. By successive distillations of alcohol ninety-four per cent can be obtained, which is the best commercial article, though most grades fall far below this. Five per cent more can be removed by distilling with CaO, which has a strong affinity for water. The last one per cent is removed by BaO. One hundred per cent const.i.tutes absolute alcohol, which is a deadly poison. Diluted, it increases the circulation, stimulates the system, hardens the tissues by withdrawing water, and is the intoxicating principle in all liquors.--It is very inflammable, giving little light, and much heat, and readily evaporates.

Beer has usually three to six per cent of alcohol; wines, eight to twenty per cent. The courts now regard all liquors having three per cent, or less, of alcohol, as not intoxicating. In Ma.s.sachusetts it is one per cent.

CHAPTER LVII.

OILS, FATS, AND SOAPS.

313. Sources and Kinds of Oils and Fats.--Oils and fats are insoluble in water; the former are liquid, the latter solid. Most fats are obtained from animals, oils from both plants and animals. Oils are cla.s.sified as fixed and essential. Castor oil is an example of the former and oil of cloves of the latter.

Fixed oils include drying and non-drying oils. They leave a stain on paper, while essential, or volatile oils, leave no trace, but evaporate readily. Essential oils dissolved in alcohol furnish essences. They are obtained by distilling with water the leaves, petals, etc., of plants. Drying oils, as linseed, absorb O from the air, and thus solidify. Non-drying ones, as olive, do not solidify, but develop acids and become rancid after some time.

Oils and fats are salts of fatty acids and the base glycerin. The three most common of these salts are olein, found in olive oil, palmitin, in palm oil and human fat, and stearin, in lard. The first is liquid, the second semi-solid, the last solid. Most fats are mixtures of these and other salts.

Olefin = Glyceryl)( oleic) oleate ) ( ) Pahnitin = Glyceryl)salts from (palmitic)acid and glyceryl hydrate.

palmitate)( ) Stearin = Glyceryl) (stearic ) stearate)

314. Saponification consists in separating these salts into their acids and the base glycerin; soap-making is the best ill.u.s.tration. To effect this separation, a strong soluble base is used, KOH for soft, and NaOH for hard soap. Study this reaction:

Glyceryl oleate ) (sodium ) (oleate ) Glyceryl palmitate) + (hydrate)= sodium (palmitate) + (glyceryl Glyceryl stearate ) (stearate ) (hydrate

Soaps are thus salts of fatty acids and of K or Na.

315. Soap is soluble in soft water, but the sodium stearate probably unites with water to form hydrogen sodium stearate and NaOH. The grease which exudes from the skin, or appears in fabrics to be washed, is attacked by this NaOH and removed, together with the suspended dirt, and a new soap is formed and dissolved in the water. Hard water contains salts of Ca and Mg, and when soap is used with it the Na is at once replaced by these metals, and insoluble Ca or Mg soaps are formed. Hence in hard water soap will not cleanse till all the Ca and Mg compounds have combined.

316. Glycerin, C3H5(OH)3, is a sweet, thick, colorless, unctuous liquid, used in cosmetics, unguents, pomades, etc. It is prepared in quant.i.ty by pa.s.sing superheated steam over fats when under pressure.

317. Dynamite.--Treated with HNO3 and H2SO4 glycerin forms the very explosive and poisonous liquid nitro-glycerin. In this process the C3H5(OH)3 becomes C3H5(NO3)3. C3H5(OH)3 + 3HNO3 = C3H5(NO3)3+3 H2O. H2SO4 is used to absorb the H2O which is formed. Nitro-glycerin, absorbed by gunpowder, diatomaceous earth, sawdust, etc., forms dynamite. For obvious reasons the pupil should not experiment with these substances.

318. b.u.t.ter and Oleomargarine.--Milk contains minute particles of fat, about 1/500 of an inch in diameter, which give it the whitecolor. These particles are lighter than the containing liquid, and rise to the top as cream. Churning unites the particles more closely, and separates them from the b.u.t.termilk.

The flavor of b.u.t.ter is due to the presence of five or ten per cent of butyric and other acids of the same series.

It was found that cows gave milk after they ceased to have food; hence it was inferred that the milk was produced at the expense of the cows' fat. Why could not b.u.t.ter be artificially made from the same fat? It was but a step from fat to milk, as it was from milk to b.u.t.ter. Oleomargarine, or b.u.t.terine, was the result. Beef fat, suet, is washed in water, ground to a pulp, and partially melted and strained, the stearin is separated from the filtered liquid and made into soap, and an oily liquid is left. This is salted, colored with annotto, mixed with a certain portion of milk, and churned. The product is scarcely distinguishable from b.u.t.ter, and is chemically nearly identical with it, though less likely to become rancid from the absence of certain fatty acids; its cost is perhaps one-third as much as that of b.u.t.ter.

Chapter LVIII

CARBO-HYDRATES.

319. Carbon and Water.--Some very important organic compounds have H and O, in the proper proportion to form water, united with C. The three leading ones are sugar, C12H22O11 or C12(H2O)11, starch, C6H10O6, or ?, and cellulose, C18H30O15 or ?. Note the significance of the name carbo-hydrates as applied to them.

320. Sugars may be divided into two cla.s.ses,--the sucroses, C12H22O11, and the glucoses, C6H12O6. Sucrose, the princ.i.p.al member of the first cla.s.s, is obtained from the juice of the maple, the palm, the beet and the sugarcane; in Europe largely from the beet, in America from cane. Granulated sugar is that which has been refined; brown sugar is the unrefined. From the sap evaporated by boiling, brown sugar crystallizes, leaving mola.s.ses, which contains glucose and other substances. Good mola.s.ses has but a small percentage of glucose. To refine brown sugar it is dissolved in water, a small quant.i.ty of blood is added to remove certain vegetable substances, after which it is filtered through animal charcoal, i.e. bone-black, a process which takes out the coloring-matter. The water is then evaporated in vacuum-pans, so as to boil at about 74 degrees and to prevent conversion into grape sugar. By this process much glucose or syrup is formed, which is separated from the crystalline sucrose by rapidly revolving centrifugal machines. Great quant.i.ties of sucrose are used for food by all civilized nations. A single refinery in New York purifies 2,000,000 pounds per day.

321. Glucose, or invert sugar, the princ.i.p.al member of the second cla.s.s, consists of two distinct kinds of sugar, --dextrose and levulose. These differ in certain properties, but have the same symbol. Both are found in equal parts in ripe fruits, while sucrose occurs in the unripe. Honey contains these three kinds of sugar.

Sucrose, by the action of heat, weak acids, or ferments, may be resolved into the other two varieties. C12H22O11 + H2O = C6H12O6 + C6H12O6. No mode of reversing this process, or of transforming glucose into sucrose is known. Glucose is easily made from starch or from the cellulose in cotton rags, sawdust, etc. If boiled with dilute H2SO4 starch takes up water and becomes glucose.

C6H10O5 + H2O = C6H12O6.

CaCO3 is added to precipitate the H2SO4, which remains unchanged.

State the reaction. The product is filtered and the filtrate is evaporated. Much glucose is made from the starch of corn and potatoes.

322. Starch is found in all plants, especially in grains, seeds, and tubers. Green plants--those containing chlorophyll-- manufacture their own starch from CO2 and H2O. These chlorophyll grains are the plant's chemical laboratories, and hundreds of thousands of them exist in every leaf. CO2 and a very little H2O enter the leaf from the air, H2O being also drawn up through the root and stem from the earth. In some unknown way in the leaf, light has the power of synthesizing these into starch and setting free O, which is returned to the atmosphere.6 CO2 + 5 H2O = C6H10O5 + 12 O. As no such change takes place in darkness, all green plants must have light. Parasitic plants, which are usually colorless, obtain starch ready-made from those on which they feed.

323. Uses.--Glucose is used in the manufacture of alcohol and cheap confectionery, and in adulterating sucrose. It is only two- thirds as sweet as the latter. The seeds of all plants contain starch for the germinating sprout to feed upon; but starch is insoluble, and hence useless until it is converted into glucose.

This is effected by the action of warmth, moisture, and a ferment in the seed. Glucose is soluble and is at first the plant's main food.

Commercial starch is made in the United States chiefly from corn; in Europe, from potatoes. Differences in the size of starch granules enable microscopists to determine the plant to which they belong.

324. Cellulose, or woody fiber, is the basis of all vegetable cell walls. Cotton fiber represents almost pure cellulose. From it are made paper and woven tissues. In paper manufacture, woody fiber is made into a pulp, washed, bleached, filtered, hot- pressed, and sometimes glazed. Parchment paper, vegetable parchment, is made by dipping unglazed paper for half a minute into cold dilute H2SO4, 1 part H2O, 2 1/2 parts H2SO4, and then washing. The fiber, by chemical change, is thus toughened. The cell walls of wood are impure cellulose; hence the inferior quality of paper made from wood-pulp. Paper is now employed for a large number of purposes for which wood has heretofore been used, such as for barrels, pails, and other hollow ware, wheels, etc.

325. Gun-cotton is made by treating cotton fiber with H2SO4 and HNO3, washing and drying. To all appearances no change has taken place, but the substance has become an explosive compound.