Nevertheless, the wolves did kill at least the three deer that we found, and no doubt took several others. Although the sample size is small, the results of our a.n.a.lysis of the condition of the deer are consistent with those from other studies, indicating that wolves prey primarily on debilitated deer (Pimlott et al. 1969, Mech and Frenzel 1971).

All three deer killed by the wolves were seriously malnourished, with 6% or less fat content in the marrow of their femurs, or thigh bones. At less than 25% fat in the marrow, serious malnutrition has developed (Cheatum 1949). (In comparison, the femur fat of 59 doe deer killed by automobiles in the Upper Peninsula in March and April 1974 averaged 46%, according to Dr. L. D. Fay, Michigan Department of Natural Resources.) In addition, one of the animals killed by the wolves had been wounded by a bullet and had a broken leg; all three were does, and were over 4 years of age, a factor that Pimlott et al. (1969) and Mech and Frenzel (1971) have also found important in wolf kills.

An Alternate Approach

Although the time of release for the four wolves in this study was selected in order to maximize chances that they would remain in their new range, possibly a release earlier in winter would be more successful. The failure of the adult female to conceive was probably a result of captivity and handling, although this needs confirmation through additional studies. Nevertheless, an early winter release might be favored by deep snows hindering travel. Furthermore, by breeding season in late February the wolves might already have settled into an area. Then the entire breeding cycle might take place outside captivity and stand a better chance of succeeding.

CONCLUSIONS

Three princ.i.p.al conclusions can be drawn from the results of this experiment: (1) It is possible to transplant a pack of wild wolves into a new range. That new range, however, must be large enough to permit some initial wandering. The animals cannot be expected to establish a home range centered on or even including the point of release. (2) The habitat in Upper Michigan apparently is adequate to support wolves, in terms of food and cover, for the carca.s.ses of the two experimental wolves that could be examined intact had maintained or improved their condition during their 6-to-8-month residence in Michigan. (3) The reason for the failure of the experimental wolves to re-establish themselves was direct mortality by human beings, just as Hendrickson et al. (1975) concluded was the case for the failure of native and immigrant Michigan wolves to re-establish a population. This mortality probably is related to two factors, negative human att.i.tudes toward wolves and accessibility of humans to wolf range.

We are convinced that, ecologically, wolves can be re-established in Upper Michigan. However, a successful program of re-establishment will require the following:

1. A survey of public att.i.tudes in Upper Michigan toward re-establishing wolves,

2. An intensive public relations campaign to promote an understanding of wolf ecology and the benefits of a wolf population,

3. Suspension or removal of the bounty on coyotes,

4. Releases of additional wolves in larger numbers perhaps over a period of a few years, if public att.i.tudes appear favorable,

5. A concentrated effort to inform the public of the penalties for killing wolves,

6. A concerted law enforcement program, and

7. Monitoring of translocated animals through radio-tracking to determine the results.

[Ill.u.s.tration:]

___________________________________

=F. E. n.o.ble, Sr., President=

=BARAGA COUNTY=

=WOLF HUNTERS a.s.sOCIATION=

=Preserve Our Deer "Shoot a Wolf"=

=$100.00 Reward For Any Wolf=

=$1.50 Membership Fee=

___________________________________

_Fig. 25.--Although the transplant experiment enjoyed wide public support, some people opposed it and organized the Baraga County Wolf Hunters a.s.sociation to try to prevent the re-establishment effort_]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was a cooperative effort among the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, the U.

S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Michigan University, the Huron Mountain Wildlife Foundation, and the National Audubon Society.

The Michigan and Minnesota Departments of Natural Resources provided the legal permits and logistical support necessary for the transplant. The Fish and Wildlife Service a.s.sisted in the planning and fund-raising for the overall project, and provided the technical expertise in the live-trapping, radio-tagging and radio-tracking of the wolves. Northern Michigan University initiated and administered the project and conducted the Michigan aspects of the work. Financial support was provided by the Huron Mountain Wildlife Foundation and the National Audubon Society.

Dr. U. S. Seal of the Veterans Administration Hospital in Minneapolis a.n.a.lyzed and interpreted the blood samples, and Dr. Ray D. Barnes, University of Minnesota, the female reproductive tracts.

The authors wish to thank all of the people mentioned above and the following individuals: Ralph Bailey and Robert Rafferty, Michigan Department of Natural Resources; Jeff Renneberg, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Fred Harrington, State University of N. Y. at Stony Brook; Roger Peters, University of Michigan; Tom Jernstad, Leo Maki, and Leo Wouri, Huron Mountain Club; the late William P. Harris Jr. and Theodore A. McGraw of the Huron Mountain Wildlife Foundation; Edward H. Brigham III, National Audubon Society; Dennis Diaz and William Rowloff, pilots of Northern Airmotive; Robert Neil, owner of the research airplane; Denis Kallery, Cynthia Watt, and George Wilson of Marquette; and last but certainly not least, wolf-trapper Robert Himes of Ray, Minnesota.

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