ALCATRAZ.

A Definitive History of the Penitentiary Years.

By Michael Esslinger.

Acknowledgements.

Alcatraz may well continue to stand as a symbol of confinement and isolation, but the scope of my research and the influence of those who have contributed were, simply stated, not. They encircled the globe, from across the US to as far away as Holland and these people have helped me to define the framework upon which to build. I once came across a quotation from the Dalai Lama, who stated in his great wisdom that sharing knowledge is the path to immortality. As it may, I will be forever grateful to the following immortals: First and foremost, Joseph V. Sanchez, Archivist at the National Archives was an enthusiastic supporter and always went above and beyond to help me navigate through the endless maze of files and records. Michael Frusch and Rosemary Kennedy also extended their support and always came through on my short-notice requests. John Martini, historian, writer and masterful researcher, was a phenomenal resource on a mult.i.tude of levels. His pa.s.sion for exploring history, his willingness to share new discoveries and his careful attention to detail have made my work so much more engaging. In addition he is the author of one of my favorite books, Fortress Alcatraz, which remains "the" landmark reference on the military years. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the late Erwin Thompson, whom I never had the chance to meet, but whose mammoth reference ent.i.tled Alcatraz The Rock was key to my studies.

Kim Sulik at the National Park Archives suffered through my never-ending requests for material and was always a kind spirit. Susan Ewing Haley was also instrumental in offering advice and direction regarding materials in the early stages of my research. Sam Daniel at the Library of Congress helped me to locate some hard-to-find photographs from a variety of sources. Bill Kooiman and Irene Stuchura at the San Francisco Maritime Museum were extremely obliging in allowing me to repeatedly set up camp in their offices and explore materials. Chuck Stucker, another skilled historian and former resident of Alcatraz, proved to be one of my most exceptional resources. Chuck's pa.s.sion to preserve the history and perspectives of those who called Alcatraz home will undoubtedly be celebrated by future historians who are tasked to chronicle this chapter of America's history. Pat Akre and Susan Goldstein, Archivists at the San Francisco Library, were also very gracious in helping me with my photograph inquires. Thanks also go to my friends at the Monterey and Carmel Library for helping me in my early California research and likewise to my good friends at the National Steinbeck Center for their support and sound advice. I must also mention Loretta Thompson and Yolanda Talamonte of Hartnell College, who helped transcribe numerous doc.u.ments included in this reference.

Herbert Hart was one of the pioneers in collecting information on the military years, and he allowed me to use quotations and photographs from his 1969 Report to the San Francisco Mayor's Office. Tom Pavia was kind enough to let me use his wonderful portrait of Phil Bergen for the dedication. Vernel Crittendon and Lieutenant Pat Blanson at San Quentin State Prison both proved to be excellent resources in helping me to locate materials and information on Warden Johnston. Another unique source was Frank Keaton at Keaton's Mortuary. Keaton's handled the body of Sam Shockley following his execution and Frank directed me to a variety of repositories to help verify burial records for various inmates. Unfortunately, much of this information was left on the cutting room floor and didn't make it into the final reference. Frank was also helpful in providing unique insight into many of the subjects covered in this reference.

The late Jim Quillen was another wonderful source to whom I owe very special thanks. He recounted for me his numerous experiences while incarcerated at Alcatraz, and offered me his first hand memories of the 1946 events, which he witnessed while being incarcerated in D Block. I came to admire his honesty and his willingness to revive some very unpleasant memories. Willie Radkay and the late Dale Stamphill also provided valuable a.s.sistance in understanding the challenges of confinement at Alcatraz. Former inmates Darwin c.o.o.n and Glenn "Nate" Williams are likewise two people whom I greatly admire, and I am grateful for their contributions. Former President Ronald Reagan awarded Williams the President's Action Award and Glenn is without question one of nicest and most inspirational people I have ever met. A true Christian and a great storyteller in his own right, Darwin c.o.o.n has dedicated himself to openly sharing his experiences and giving back to society. He has offered the public a rare gift by capturing the interest of youths who are intrigued by Alcatraz and educating them about the consequences of crime.

It would be difficult to adequately thank former Alcatraz Correctional Officers Clifford Fish and the late Philip Bergen for the extensive time they spent painstakingly reviewing my ma.n.u.script, giving direction and making appropriate corrections. Both provided extensive commentary on various aspects of the prison and its history, and they made this project an extraordinarily special experience. I would also especially like to thank Sh.e.l.ly Roby of Michael Hoff Productions and the Discovery Channel for inviting me to tag along during the filming of Cliff's first visit back to Alcatraz since he left in 1962. This was a very special privilege and I feel extremely honored to have been included.

I also wish to thank Ronald Paolini and Don Graffe of the Marin County Department of Parks and Open s.p.a.ce, who both were very helpful in the search for and identification of Miran Thompson's unmarked burial site. Don deserves special mention since he helped personally in the tedious search and even when the rains. .h.i.t, he didn't mind getting a little soiled while excavating mud. Anne Diestel of the Bureau of Prisons provided me with some excellent photographs and other materials. Anne G. Sevinga offered expertise and knowledge, corresponding from Holland. He offered numerous suggestions on the ma.n.u.script, and was always a prodigious source of guidance.

A special thank you goes to Alcatraz Ranger John Cantwell and to the volunteers and staff members at Alcatraz. These men and women always took time to accommodate my requests and answer my questions and always approached the island's historical past in a balanced and dignified fashion. Namely but not limited to National Park Rangers: Benny Batom, Lori Brosnan, Jayeson Vance, Dan Unger, Al Blank, George Durgerian, Craig Gla.s.sner, Wendy Swee and Tim Brazil. They are the key conservators of this important history.

I would also like to thank the various officers who risked their employment by covertly snapping photos of the prison, notably George DeVincenzi and many others. Without them, much of the history would have been lost. There were many others I met at Alcatraz who suffered through my endless questions and requests for clarification I thank them for their contribution. Jolene Babyak, who wrote an excellent biography on Robert Stroud and the Morris-Anglin escape, offered some early advice on locating a few specific photos. Ernest Lageson, who wrote two exceptional books on the 1946 events helped me to locate a few key photographs that remained elusive until our meeting at Alcatraz. Brad Sears, the owner of the launch Warden Johnston, shared his photos and information on the history of this San Francisco seafaring icon. I applaud his relentless efforts to save this important historical treasure. Mario Gomes was also a wonderful help in locating unpublished photos of Al Capone. Stan Hamilton of the National Press Club was supportive and offered some early tips on researching Machine Gun Kelly.

Kathryn Marusak, Bruce Hagen and Jamie Schoonover all provided guidance on the ma.n.u.script through its various stages of development. The first drafts were so large that we joked about naming the book The Brick. Thanks to their careful surgical guidance, the book will now fit on a bookshelf. Lucy Boling, the true wizard behind the curtain, was a master in the final editing stages and was always honest yet gentle in her advice on changes in structure and content. John Reinhardt, the extraordinary book designer, has contributed with infinite patience. He engaged in the process years before the design concepts ever started and a decade later remains a good friend. Phil Hall and Mira Kamada are the skillful creators of this book's wonderful ill.u.s.trations and I feel lucky to have collaborated with them.

Lastly, I'm very lucky to have the opportunity to say publicly to the special people in my life how much they mean to me. Words can't express my grat.i.tude to my mother and father, who have always shown full support in all of my interests. This in itself could be the subject of another book. From my youngest years they encouraged my small adventures and allowed me to explore a variety of places on my own something that is sadly no longer possible in today's world. Whether it was by dropping me a off at a movie studio in Hollywood, or by letting me explore Alcatraz, they always encouraged me, and their love and trust have blessed me with a most gifted life. My beautiful wife Julie deserves the greatest thanks. I love you... To Forrest, Ross and Brandon, the little men who make my world, may you all do great things. Love also to my late dog and companion Luck (and Spark too). I deeply miss my writing partner...

And finally, to my late friend Michael Lundeen, my best friend G.o.dspeed...

Thank you all, Michael Esslinger.

Foreword.

Darwin Evert c.o.o.n.

I can still vividly remember that crisp September day in 1958. I stepped from the prison launch, the Warden Johnston, straining to get a good view of my new surroundings. The cold steel shackles chafed against my skin as I walked through the gates and into a world kept secret from the public. It was a somber feeling, trying to come to grips with the idea that I had been branded as one of the nation's most incorrigible inmates in the federal prison system. I had been a bank robber, and I was now collecting the wages of my sin. After processing I was strip-searched, then permitted a brief shower and escorted to my new home a diminutive five-by-nine-foot cell. As I lay back on my hard bunk, I realized that this was it... I had finally reached the end of line... Alcatraz.

I lived under the strict routine of America's most infamous prison and faced head-on the relentless pressures of existence within my cramped and tiny cell. I became well versed in the cloak-and-dagger underground of Alcatraz, a silent code known only to the inmates. Not everyone was able to come to terms with the stressful and unrelenting regimen. Some responded by committing suicide, and others with explosive surges of deadly violence. Meanwhile, the painful landscape of freedom was spread before us, just out of reach across the bay. The sights and sounds were a continuous reminder of everything we had lost. On some occasions while we were locked in our cells, an eerie quiet would pa.s.s over the men. Distant feminine laughter would resonate from a pa.s.sing tour boat through an open barred window. The voices would quickly fade into the backdrop of seagulls and slow time, and the men would be left with only their thoughts and their memories.

I personally knew many of the famous and not-so-famous inmates who served time on The Rock. I helped my friends John Anglin and Frankie Morris to acquire some of the essential tools that they used in their famed escape attempt (later portrayed in the motion picture Escape from Alcatraz starring Clint Eastwood) and I would dream like so many others of someday making my own escape.

A long time has pa.s.sed since I last heard the frequent clashing of steel gates, and the prison guards calling out their counts. Even still, I remain a marked man. One cannot survive such a profound experience and expect to emerge unaffected. When Alcatraz finally closed in 1963, I was one of the last inmates to step off the island and it was then that I started my long journey back to freedom. In 1972, after serving nearly fifteen years in the federal prison system, I made my way back into society with a newfound spirit and outlook. I earned my way to a respectable career, was a proud foster parent to ninety-four beautiful children, and wrote a successful book ent.i.tled Alcatraz - The True End of the Line.

I think you will enjoy reading Michael's book. Through meticulous research, he has captured the experience of Alcatraz with an authentic voice. It is a skillful blend of history and character study, and a compelling portrait of America's most notorious prison.

Over the years, I have returned to the island on various occasions to share my experiences with inquisitive visitors. I sometimes return to my old cell and think of that young man lying on his bunk, dreaming of this day. As Richard Nixon once said: "...only if you have been in the deepest valley can you ever know how magnificent it is to be on the highest mountain..."

Darwin E. c.o.o.n, AZ-1422.

Former Inmate, Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary.

Dedication.

Philip R. Bergen.

"Lieutenant Bergen was a tall, square jawed, handsome man who looked as if he could have been the hero of every Sat.u.r.day movie serial ever made. He had cool direct eyes and a natural fearlessness. On Alcatraz, he was a "high-risk" guard. He was a daredevil who thought nothing of plunging head-first into danger. In addition he was a deadly shot..."

This is how Clark Howard described Philip Bergen in his brilliant novel Six Against the Rock. Bergen is also depicted in cla.s.sic novel Birdman of Alcatraz byThomas E. Gaddis and he appears in numerous and films other books. When I asked Bergen which character depiction he found most accurate, he simply replied: "Well... the birds were very well written don't you think?"

I doubt that I will ever forget the time I first handed over my "completed" ma.n.u.script to Bergen, former Captain of the Guard at Alcatraz. He had spent sixteen years working and living on the island and had raised his two daughters on "the Rock". I had spent several years conducting exhaustive research and I was quite pleased to hand him what I considered to be the final version of this book. A few weeks later I called Phil to get his opinion of the content and to see if he had any last minute recommendations. He stated in a very matter-of-fact tone: "Sure, rewrite the whole thing or make sure that it is marked fiction."

Over the next eighteen months I recommenced my long journey, heading back to the archives, cross-checking references against archival records, conducting additional interviews, attending lectures, and even going out with County staff (in the rain and mud) to verify the unmarked burial sites of a few deceased inmates. Thus while Bergen did not have any formal connection to my book, his mark remains obvious. Even when the perspectives presented were not favorable to him, he pushed me to become an objective listener and then to doc.u.ment what I had heard, rather than trying to interpret. That was the theme of his contribution and with that said, it has been a long and extraordinary journey.

Well into his nineties, Phil Bergen remained an Alcatraz aficionado. I attended several Alcatraz reunions and would watch in amazement as Phil rattled off names of people he hadn't seen in over fifty years. His ability to recount specific events and their chronologies was phenomenal. Phil Bergen represents only one of the many voices of those that lived the Alcatraz experience but his was a very prominent and authoritative voice. Getting to know Phil was a rare privilege and I feel blessed that he was able to read and comment on all but the final two chapters. Although he has pa.s.sed, his voice has not been silenced.

Thank you Phil, for helping me to see Alcatraz through your eyes and leaving behind such a remarkable legacy.

Preface.

My first introduction to Alcatraz came at a very young age, during a visit to San Francisco with my parents in the late 1970's. Just as thousands of others had done before me, I peered in wonderment from across the Bay at the small and forbidding island known as "the Rock." I had seen the books that lined the sidewalks of Fisherman's Wharf, ill.u.s.trated with the faces of hardened convicts and vintage photographs, all indicating that the island prison was a kind of living h.e.l.l. My parents were generous enough to purchase a few of these books for me and I was destined to immerse myself into this fascinating history. As we walked along the pier of Fisherman's Wharf, I sneaked a few quick peeks into my shopping bag, hoping to catch brief glimpses of the inmates and prison photos. I knew that there were no longer any prisoners residing on the island, but to a young and curious mind, there was still something intriguing and mysterious about it all.

After reading my books from cover-to-cover, I began plotting my first visit to the island. I had prepared for my excursion by studying the various escape attempts, the lives of former inmates such as Al Capone and Machine Gun Kelly and the chilling personal accounts of these and others that that were said to be the "rogues of society." During the first years when the island was open to the public, National Parks Service employees guided all of the visitor tours. As we hiked up the steep path to the cellhouse, I remember the stillness of the surroundings, broken only by the occasional screeches of pa.s.sing seagulls. The misted smell of the ocean was thick and almost tropic. As the ranger guided us past the dimly lit cells, I lagged behind, blending into the shadows, absorbed by the incredible history of the now abandoned prison.

The highlight of my trip was meeting a former inmate who had come to the island to talk with visitors and to describe the eighteen years during which he had lived on "the Rock" as inmate #AZ-714. Clarence Carnes had been involved in a disastrous attempt at armed robbery at only fifteen. When a gas station attendant challenged Carnes and fought to disarm him, the young delinquent pulled the trigger and changed his life's destiny in a matter of only seconds. Carnes was ultimately convicted of first-degree murder and he arrived on Alcatraz at the young age of only eighteen. One year later he partic.i.p.ated in what would be considered the island's most significant and catastrophic escape attempt, which would ultimately result in five tragic deaths. For his role in the escape and the murder of a correctional officer by a co-conspirator, Carnes received an additional ninety-nine years which was added to the life sentence he was already serving. His codefendants would receive the death penalty, and would later be executed sitting side-by-side in San Quentin's gas chamber. He would therefore spend the vast majority of his life behind bars.

Seeing Carnes in person, I was amazed at how much he had changed since his arrival mug shot photos on Alcatraz were taken. As I asked questions, his responses were terse and consistently evasive. He would respond by showing our group where an incident occurred, but avoided any details. He would simply nod as the National Park Ranger highlighted historical details and then would look away. I was also intrigued by his claim that despite nearly two decades on Alcatraz, there were still areas he hadn't seen within the prison confines. He was soft-spoken and articulate. His hard looks had evolved into soft rounded features and he certainly didn't resemble the cold-blooded criminal that I had read about.

A few hours later after the boat had delivered our group back to the boarding pier, I noticed Carnes sitting at a street vendor's booth signing books. I tried to muster the courage to introduce myself and ask him a few questions about the '46 events. But just as I approached him, he got up, motioned to the vendor that he was hungry and started walking away. Keeping a safe distance, I followed him through Fisherman's Wharf, finally arriving at a food concession stand. Carnes purchased a hot dog and soft drink and walked over to the telescopes located at the end of Pier 45, which advertised a close-up view of Alcatraz Island for only ten cents. He dropped a dime in the first telescope and looked through it for about a minute. Noticing me, he turned and motioned to the telescope, inviting me to have a look. He said that if I looked quickly, I might be able to catch a glimpse of a group walking down the stairs from the recreation yard. Knowing his past, I cautiously accepted the invitation and watched him carefully as I positioned myself at the telescope. Eventually I was able to navigate through the scenery through the eyepiece as Carnes started walking away, gazing casually at the island every few seconds. I finally got the courage to approach him and introduce myself. I explained that I had learned who he was from two books I had read about the prison. He graciously shook my hand and allowed me to ask some unskilled questions about his long habitation on Alcatraz and the tragic events of 1946. Our dialog remained fairly superficial until a woman approached Carnes, interrupting the conversation.

The woman told Carnes that she had been a young girl during the 1946 escape attempt and that her father had brought her to Aquatic Park, where many of the correctional officers' families had gathered to watch the events unfolding from the mainland. She explained that she had been terrified, seeing the flashes of light and hearing the thunderous guns. She told Carnes that she had hugged her father's steel thermos, praying that it would block any bullets fired by the inmates and she described how that same fear remained in her thoughts every time she looked at the island. She jokingly commented that after the '46 riot, she was annoyed at having to give up her bed to ma.s.ses of visiting relatives. They all had come to hear at firsthand her father's description of what he had witnessed from the mainland. They were all hoping to catch a glimpse through binoculars of a guard on the yard wall catwalk, or perhaps even the faint figure of an inmate.

The conversation then progressed to Carnes's thoughts on being out of prison. He commented that when he was inside, he constantly thought and read about what people were doing on the outside, but once he got out, he couldn't stop thinking about his friends on the inside and what they were doing. He said that the most difficult years of his life had been spent on Alcatraz, and that even now it consumed much of his daily thoughts. The woman made a parting comment that I still remember today. She offered to him that although they had followed different paths, and had lived their lives on opposite sides of the prison's wall, they were both still haunted by memories of Alcatraz. Carnes nodded and smiled at her, then walked off, disappearing into the crowd of tourists along the pier. It would be several decades before I realized that it was during my conversation with Carnes that I began to write this book.

Each year over one million tourists board the island's ferry to visit what was once considered the toughest federal prison in America. Today, Alcatraz is one of the biggest tourist magnets and most famous landmarks of San Francisco. The island's mystique, which has been created primarily through books and motion pictures, continues to lure people from all over the world to see firsthand where America once housed its most notorious criminals. Cramped cells, rigid discipline and unrelenting routine were the Alcatraz trademarks and it became known as the final stop for the nation's most incorrigible prisoners. On any given day, thousands of visitors can be found wandering the island and taking in its unique history. The cellhouse now abandoned by the criminals who were once housed there, still has scars of the events to which the walls once bore witness. It is a journey into a dim piece of American history and few walk away fully comprehending. The cliched expression "if these walls could talk" is taken to a deeper level.

Even today, decades after the prison's closure, the name Alcatraz still evokes a variety of dark, forbidding images for many. In the decades of the prison's active years, people would wander the sh.o.r.elines of San Francisco, weaving their own mental images of the horrors that lurked behind the concrete walls and fencing. In some ways, Alcatraz became almost two distinct ent.i.ties the prison and the myth. In many cases, the Alcatraz that people still imagine was a cruel and vile chamber of horrors and to some former inmates, this may seem a valid perception of that environment. One such case was ill.u.s.trated in an informal meeting between the late former inmate Jim Quillen and myself in the kitchen bas.e.m.e.nt of Alcatraz, in August of 1997. Forty years earlier Quillen and a few fellow inmates had plotted an escape in the very same location. During our brief conversation, Quillen confided that returning to the main cellhouse had been a painful and difficult journey. It was obvious that even decades later, he was still troubled by the many experiences he had endured on Alcatraz.

In my approach to a.s.sembling the information presented here, there has been no attempt to minimize the allegations of brutality, though the facts often times argue the opposite. I am bringing forward a more factual and balanced view through the eyes of those who lived and worked on the island, both inmates and officers. This book is intended to reflect a blend of perspectives, researched and derived from a variety of sources. The historical framework comes from both published and unpublished archive materials, supplemented by extensive interviews with a mult.i.tude of former inmates as well as correctional officers and their families. Statements of historical and technical fact are as precise as I could make them, given the resources at my disposal. Errors doubtlessly remain, as there are simply too many sources with contrasting perspectives to consider. I have made every attempt to verify information against archival record and the knowledge of those involved. Nevertheless, there is certainly some information included in this text that is reported as fact, but has most likely been embellished over the years. I don't necessarily believe that anyone has intentionally set out to falsify history, but when source information is derived primarily from personal memory, details become impure with time and thus historical interpretation tends to fall into the trap of extrapolation, rather than adhering to essential fact.

During the initial phases of my research, I received a letter from former Alcatraz inmate Willie Radkay, who wrote in part: "n.o.body wants to print the facts, even if it comes direct from the source himself. Artistic license is used to alter true incidents and events, and even the language used by the cons, whose jargons weren't spoken in church circles." This statement emerged as a common theme of discussions and interviews with former guards and inmates alike. In communicating this history, I felt it was important for the reader to understand that I am aware of the limitations of recollection and memory. I have chosen to maintain the integrity of the source material and to reconstruct events based on period doc.u.mentation, unless the original sources contain obvious errors. This may challenge the opinions of many who are versed in the history of Alcatraz.

Too often in historical works, writers have filtered events in a fashion that they felt would better acclimatize their readers to the subject matter. Often as a result, the characters of individuals and the sense of place are lost. One of my favorite examples of image softening is the famous portrait of General George Washington crossing the Delaware in 1776, by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze. Most people would probably prefer to believe that Washington stood stately and commanding in the prow of the boat, a model of dignified leadership before his men. But as historian Kenneth Davis later discovered during his research, the truth was much different from this romanticized image. When doc.u.menting his experiences with General Washington, General Harry Knox made an entry in his journal commenting that on this historical occasion, when stepping down onto the boat, Washington poked him with the tip of his boot, remarking: "Move your fat a.s.s Harry, and not too fast or you'll swamp the boat."

Another example of historical coloring involves our perceptions of the early days of s.p.a.ce travel. Following the return of the Apollo 12 Astronauts from the second lunar landing mission, the crewmen were televised in a worldwide broadcast with President Richard M. Nixon via a secured telephone connection to the White House. While awaiting the President's arrival, the crew sat idly as television cameras focused on the planetary explorers, trapped behind the gla.s.s window of their quarantine trailer. As the world watched, Mission Commander Pete Conrad cupped his hand over the telephone receiver, turned away from the camera and whispered a comment to Command Module Pilot Richard Gordon. The public would never hear his remark, which was later revealed to me: "See d.i.c.k, I told you if you stuck with me you'd be farting through silk." I obviously never met George Washington, but I did get to know Pete Conrad extremely well and humor was a hallmark of his personality. He was a brilliant astronaut, but he never let an opportunity for a joking comment pa.s.s him. I had heard this story before meeting him and it helped me to shape a more accurate image of his personality. I've always wished that I had read more such stories when I was in school, rather than the carefully woven images that my textbooks always seem to provide. When Pete later stepped foot on the moon, his historic first words spoken from the lunar surface were: "Whoopee.... Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me." His humor shows the human side to those historic accomplishments.

With all of this in mind, the greatest weakness of Alcatraz A Definitive History of the Penitentiary Years also remains its princ.i.p.al strength. I felt it was important to capture the essence of the island's history, but at the same time to ensure the integrity of the archival records. Above all, I had to resist the temptation to venture too deeply into the states of mind or the thought processes of the individuals involved, or to replace plain fact with entertaining narrative. The voices of Alcatraz are numerous and one simply cannot understand the complex history of the island by looking solely at any exclusive source. In my process of researching specific events, when the source materials provided little or no information, I turned to the excellent works that are listed in the bibliography to verify the chronology. These works have served to preserve the history of Alcatraz to the present day. It should also be noted that the bibliographic references provided herein serve as a map for those whose interests require a more expanded research base. Alcatraz A Definitive History is intended as a source reference rather than a conclusive text. The history of Alcatraz is a fascinating window into one of the richest and debatably one of the darkest aspects of America's history. I hope that this book will inspire you to read further on the subject and will help you to hear for yourself the many voices of Alcatraz, and their fascinating stories.

- Michael Esslinger.

Discovery and Exploration.

For centuries the bay of San Francisco lay hidden to pa.s.sing ships, due to a unique illusion created by a small island that is known today as Alcatraz. This island positioned at the center of the bay and three miles inland from the Pacific Ocean was indistinctly visible from the misty coastline. The Rocky formations draped with gloomy vegetation blended in with the soft features of the East Bay Hills, screening the mouth of the elusive harbor.

A survey map from the 1800's showing Alcatraz Island set against the background of the East Bay Hills. This unique topography masked the small island and the San Francis...o...b..y from early explorers.

Spanish Explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo.

In 1542 Antonio de Mendoza, the Viceroy of New Spain, commissioned a Spaniard named Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo to explore the northern reaches of the colony's west coast.Following the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492, a steady stream of explorers had charted expeditions to the New World in search of gold, and to claim territory for their rulers. Mendoza was lured by their tales of magnificent wealth in this unexplored territory, with coastlines said to be rich with pearls, and interiors abundant with precious gold. The main purpose of the expedition, however, would be to seek out the legendary waterway called the Strait of Anian, known to English explorers as the Northwest Pa.s.sage. For centuries, voyagers had dreamed of a westward route to Asia through the waters of North America, but their expeditions had often ended in disaster.

There is little known about Cabrillo's early life and the factual traces that remain are debated by historians. It is believed that he was born in Portugal between 1498 and 1500 and spent most of his life in military service. Historical records in the Spanish archives maintain that in 1520, Cabrillo accompanied Panfilo de Naravaez in an unsuccessful attack against Hernan Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico's Aztec Empire though this is disputed by equal numbers who believe that Cabrillo fought alongside Cortes. Some references suggest that Cabrillo himself served as Governor of Guatemala and was one of the conquerors of the Central American region including Nicaragua and El Salvador.

Many historians believe that Cabrillo's interest in exploring the northern coast originated with Cortes. In 1522 Cortes had built a shipyard at Zacatula on the Pacific coast of Mexico, as a base from which to send out expeditions to chart the Pacific. Building the ships proved problematic, and by the time they had managed to produce seaworthy vessels in 1526, the King of Spain ordered them sent to the South Pacific. Cabrillo was destined to command one of history's most daring voyages of discovery and became the first European to explore the northern coastline.

On June 27, 1542, Cabrillo departed from Navidad (known today as Acapulco) in a small sailing vessel christened the San Salvador accompanied by a support vessel named the Victoria. His ships were equipped with modern weapons of the era cannons, swords, and crossbows and loaded with ma.s.sive food rations. The San Salvador was also loaded with trade goods as the explorers hoped to return from their voyages bearing treasure. Cabrillo was instructed by Mendoza to maintain records regarding which trade goods proved most popular for the benefit of future expeditions.

Blessed with strong and steady winds, they journeyed north along the North American coast, staking claim to prominent territories along the way. Cabrillo and his crew of nearly one hundred men made few stops to explore the interior of his newfound claims, which were known as Alta California.

The expedition resulted in extensive charting of the Pacific territories, but it also conveyed a myriad of mapping inaccuracies. The explorers aboard the San Salvador sailed past Monterey and the San Francis...o...b..y without even noticing them. Although Cabrillo was noted as a distinguished navigator, references indicate that his course-plotting logs erred by one to two degrees of lat.i.tude. This was likely the result of an inaccurately calibrated compa.s.s. Navigation was further complicated by inclement weather, which did not allow for reliable s.e.xtant readings. Several months into the voyage the crew would also endure violent storms, as described on November 11, 1542 in a post summation ship's log written by a scribe: The weather from south-southeast worsened so much with rain in the southwest, and darkness, that they could not have a palm of sail and were forced to run with a close-reefed piece of sail on the foremast, with much work all night, and on Sunday the weather grew so much worse that day and night were ruined, and it continued until Monday at midday. The storm was as violent as any could be in Spain, and on Sat.u.r.day night the ships lost sight of each other.

Storms were often demoralizing to the ship's crew. Severe weather also meant slower progress and if the conditions grew harsh enough, they could easily prove fatal to both the ship and her crew. November storms forced the San Salvador back out to sea and she became separated from her companion vessel. Nevertheless, Cabrillo decided to continue his voyage north.

After exploring as far as the Russian River in Northern California, the expedition turned back to the south as Cabrillo had decided not to voyage any further unaccompanied. On his way back he would again miss sighting the inlet to the San Francis...o...b..y, probably due to fog or the masking illusion of Alcatraz. Cabrillo found his companion ship anch.o.r.ed near Santa Cruz, located just north of Monterey. While his crew repaired damages from the storm, Cabrillo briefly explored the Monterey Bay territories. After the necessary repairs had been completed, both ships set southward along the coast.

Cabrillo's return voyage led the explorers to San Miguel Island in the Santa Barbara Channel. The expedition was further complicated when Cabrillo met a tragic and untimely death from a severe leg injury. One of Cabrillo's men, Francisco de Vargas, described how several crewmen were ambushed by natives while filling drinking urns with fresh water. Cabrillo led a rescue party and severely injured his leg when jumping from the small sh.o.r.e boat. Vargas wrote: "one foot struck a rocky ledge, and he splintered a shinbone." Weeks later the open fracture became severely infected as gangrene set in. Cabrillo would die shortly thereafter on January 3, 1543. He had given final orders to Senior Navigator Bargolome Ferrelo to resume the expedition, taking a northern course.

After burying Cabrillo on the Channel Islands, Ferrelo took charge of the expedition and continued the exploratory voyage north. He decided to push further than was originally planned, charting the coastline up through the northwest regions of Oregon. The ships rounded Cape Mendocino, finally reaching what is now known as the Rogue River in Oregon. With rations running low and huge winter storms inhibiting the visibility necessary to plot their course, they turned south and made the journey back to Navidad. Only ten months after their original departure they arrived back at their homeport on April 14, 1543, and their expedition was judged a monumental failure by Mendoza. The surviving crewmen were weakened by starvation and many were seriously ill with scurvy. They had found no riches and more importantly, no mystical pa.s.sage joining the great oceans.

Mendoza had the ships refitted and sent them to Peru on a trading voyage. Neither the San Salvador nor the Victoria would ever return, both falling victim to the shipworms that fed on the wooden hulls, eroding their structures. There is little doc.u.mentation detailing Pacific coastal expeditions over the next two centuries. The crude charts from Cabrillo's voyages were published and they served as the primary means of navigating the California coast for explorers of this period.

The earliest authenticated instance of the name California being used by explorers was in the summation ship logs of Cabrillo's expedition in 1542. But the first ever recorded use of the name was discovered in a romantic novel ent.i.tled The Exploits of Esplandian written around 1500 by Garci Ordoez de Montalvo. This work referred to an "Amazon Island" called California, and it is believed that explorers of this period were familiar with the book which further romanticized the early exploration of these waters.

In late 1577, England's famed sea voyager Sir Francis Drake embarked on a courageous expedition, once more in hope of locating the elusive Northern Pa.s.sage. He would journey to the Pacific Ocean via the Strait of Magellan with five ships and he announced to his crew: "Whoever first describes her, shall have my chain of gold for his good news." As they ran down the Atlantic Coast of South America, storms, separations, dissension and a near fatal encounter with natives marred their pa.s.sage. Drake was forced to sc.r.a.p two of his severely damaged vessels and it would be several months before he could recommence his journey. His flagship the Pelican would be christened under a glorious new designation and would henceforth be known as the Golden Hind.

Renowned English sea voyager Sir Francis Drake.

Sir Francis Drake's flagship, the Golden Hind.

In September of 1578, now traveling with only three ships, Drake sailed through the deadly Strait of Magellan, emerging dangerously into terrific Pacific thunderstorms. For two months the ships endured horrendous weather, unable either to sail out of the storms or to stay clear of the treacherous coastline. The ships were scattered and the smallest, the Marigold, went down with her entire crew. The Elizabeth found herself in the Strait once again and turned back for England. The Golden Hind had drifted far to the south, ultimately sailing around the end of the South American continent and then plotting a northward course.

After stopping to make repairs off the coast of Southern Mexico, the Golden Hind sailed out of Spanish waters in April of 1579 and continued north along the California coastline. After nearly one and a half years of this journey, Drake was forced to bring the Golden Hind close to sh.o.r.e for key repairs. The Hind was a small, one-hundred-tonvessel carrying over thirty tons of Spanish treasure, which had been acquired through pirating raids and consisted mostly of gold and silver. The repairs required were so extensive that on June 17, 1579, Drake set up camp in an area south of Point Reyes California, now officially named Drake's Bay. While waiting for the work to be completed, Drake spent five weeks exploring the interior region of the Marin coastline yet he too failed to notice the inlet leading into the Bay of San Francisco, perhaps due to their inherit fog and inclement weather. Centuries later, historians are still pa.s.sionately debating over Drake's western voyage. The discoveries made on his North American expedition are poorly doc.u.mented and only fragmentary records remain.

Much of Drake's five-week respite on sh.o.r.e was spent interacting with native people. Francis Fletcher, the chaplain of the Hind, maintained a detailed journal of events throughout their expedition. He described the Indians at Drake's Bay and their brave sh.o.r.e landings in their canoes. They approached Drake's crew with peaceful gestures and welcoming gifts. Although there are no official records of Indians occupying the island of Alcatraz previous to its official discovery, there are some references indicating that the native Ohlone and Miwok Indians may have used the island as a fishing platform and it is almost certain that they were the first to explore Alcatraz by canoe.

In 1595 Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeno, another explorer searching for harbors along the California Coast sailed only twenty miles from the sh.o.r.es of the Golden Gate but nevertheless he too failed to detect the clandestine bay. Although the details of his voyages are often disputed, numerous descriptions ill.u.s.trate how he was forced to set anchor in Drake's Bay during a heavy storm and subsequently lost his vessel the San Agustin which sank just offsh.o.r.e. The San Agustin was carrying a cargo of porcelain ware, silks, wax and other trade goods, some of which were salvaged by the shipwrecked Spanish and were left onsh.o.r.e when they departed in a small launch that had been used to explore the coastal regions. Cermeno would make the first recorded use of the name San Francisco, misidentifying Drake's Bay. He named the land the Bay of San Francisco for the founder of his order, Saint Francis. The Cermeno expedition was termed a disgrace by his government and even his navigational charts would be considered suspect. In recent years, there have been several maritime artifacts discovered in this area that date from the same period, giving credence to modern theories of Cermeno's landing and the wreck of the San Agustin.

In 1602, yet another Spanish explorer would lead an expedition to this region in search of a good shipping harbor. His name was Sebastian Vizcaino, and his exploration would result in some of the most extensive chartings ever made of the northern coastline. Sailing with two vessels and a small launch for land expeditions, he departed Navidad and on the sixteenth of December landed in what he termed the "deepest harbor near land to lay anchor. " He named the safe harbor for his Viceroy, the Conde de Monterey, and saw it as a profitable northern frontier port. He wrote that the magnificent harbor was rich with timber for shipbuilding, and a natural paradise with abundant shelter from wind. Despite these romantic tales of a harbor in Paradise, the new Viceroy of New Spain, Marques de Montesclaros, did not trust Vizcaino's stories. A study written by Walton Bean, Professor of History at the University of California at Berkeley, suggests that the Viceroy's distrust of Vizcaino was so great that the expedition's mapmaker, Martinez Palacios, was convicted of forgery and then hanged. San Francisco was destined to remain isolated and barren of discovery for nearly two hundred more years.

In New Spain, Jesuit missionaries had ruled the northwestern frontier regions dating back to late 1580, under the terms decreed by their King. These missionaries established settlements along the northern Baja peninsula, which were considered to be the most structured and disciplined of all the missions in New Spain. The Jesuits maintained their dominance in Baja until around the late 1760s, when the King ordered their expulsion, under suspicion that they would attempt to fragment the Spanish government and take power for themselves. The evictions of the Jesuits were delegated to Visitor-General Joe de Galvez, a special envoy of the King. His role was to conduct tribunals, and to restructure the political systems in various regions. Galvez proposed to the King that a new governmental unit be established throughout the northwest. The new structure would be called a commandancy-general, and it was intended to expand Spanish territories up into the Californias. Galvez claimed that the Europeans were starting to populate the northern lands beyond the Californias, and would soon begin a southward migration to establish their own rule.

In late 1768, Galvez sent Captain Gaspar de Portola on what he termed a "sacred expedition," to establish colonies in the Californias. Father Junipero Serra, a catholic missionary, would accompany him to sanctify and establish the holy missions. Serra had been born in the village of Petra on the island of Majorca in 1713, the son of a poor farmer. His given name was Miguel, but he chose Junipero as his religious designation, naming himself for the closest companion of Saint Francis. Serra became a Professor of Philosophy at the University of Majorca, but left in his mid-thirties to pursue a more meaningful life as a foreign missionary. In Walton Bean's fascinating interpretive history, the author described Serra: "Through his life he was a vigorous, hard-driving man, never turning back from a task he had begun, always demanding the full measure from others as well as himself. In physical stature, Serra was short, not more than 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in height, but in courage and determination, he was a giant..."

Father Junipero Serra.

A period engraving of Mission San Carlos Borromeo del Rio Carmelo, founded in 1770.

Serra's role in the colonization of California was most significant. He inspired the settler communities with missionary sermons that communicated divine principles and ethics. He would also establish the first Missions in San Diego (on July 16, 1769) and Monterey (which he founded on June 3, 1770, originally at what is known today as the Royal Presidio Chapel and then relocated to a site in Carmel in 1771, naming it Mission San Carlos Borromeo del Rio Carmelo). Father Serra died in 1784, and is buried in the Basilica at the Mission in Carmel.

There were three vessels that made the sacred voyage to California. The San Carlos would serve as the flagship with Portola commanding from her helm. The other ships, the San Jose and San Antonio, were filled with livestock and other goods to be used in establishing the colonies. These vessels transported some of the furniture and other artifacts from Portola's expedition that still remain at the Carmel Mission in present day. The condition of the ships was less than adequate, and they took on large amounts of water through their leaky hulls. The San Jose went down, taking with her all of her crew, who additionally, were believed to have been stricken with Scurvy. The crews of the other vessels were also sick and the expedition would lose nearly half of its total number of nearly three hundred men. The expeditions into Monterey and north to San Francisco would have to be continued by land.

The first overland expedition failed to locate the Port at Monterey. It is suspected that Vizcaino's romanticized description may have been misleading and caused the frontiersmen to press too far northward in search of a site for their future mission. By the time the crew arrived in the area that is today known as Berkeley, they had already realized that they had overshot their destination. Many of the men had fallen ill during the exhausting expedition, with several doc.u.mented as having severe diarrhea, and others stricken with scurvy. Portola himself was described as being ill with "sickness of the intestines, " and with rations low, the expedition settled for a brief period to allow the men time to rest.

On Tuesday October 31, 1769, Portola's party made the first official references to the discovery of San Francisco. In excerpts from the logs of Portola and Miguel Costanso, the expedition's engineer and cosmographer, the historic moment is described: "We traveled two hours of very bad road up over a very high mountain. We stopped upon the height and the sergeant with eight soldiers were dispatched to explore, as some farallones, and a point of land, and a bight had been seen. Here we stayed for four days to explore. The pioneers set out, and we afterward followed along with the packtrain and the rest of the people at eleven o'clock in the forenoon. From the summit we descended a large bay lying to the northwest under a point of land reaching far out to sea, over which there had been much disputing the evening before whether it was an island or no, it having been impossible then, because of some horizon-mist covering it, to make it out as clearly as we did now. Out beyond, about to the west-northwest with respect to our position, and a bit to the southwest from the point could be seen seven white farallones of differing sizes and looking back along the north side of the bay there were abrupt white bluffs made out more toward the north, while turning around toward the northeast, the mouth of the inlet was discovered that seemed to reach inland. At the sight of these marks we turned to the Cabrera Bueno's sailing directions, and it seemed to us out of all doubt that we were looking upon was the Harbor of San Francisco, and so persuaded that Monterrey Harbor lay behind us."

Father Crespi who was present on the expedition wrote: "All Saint's day and All Soul's day. The two of us said ma.s.s here, and on All Saint's day after Ma.s.s by the governor's order Sergeant Ortega set out with eight soldiers to scout for three days' march, wherefore we remained here until the 3rd, when they arrived back at night from scouting. At this place there are limitless very lush brambles, many rose patches, and all kinds of lush plants, very plentiful. Shortly after we here there came over to the camp a good sized village of very well behaved friendly natives (Indians), most of them well bearded and brought us a great many large dark-colored tamales, very rich, which the soldiers say are very good and would go well in a pipianfrica.s.see. There must be many villages all about this rich harbor, for we have seen many smoke [columns] from here; mussels are also very plentiful here, and very large, and the soldiers have brought back a great deal of them. Many deer have been seen upon the hills here. Bear tracks and droppings have been seen here. Our sick men have been improving everyday and are now all riding on horseback, thank the Lord Who has granted them this relief."

On November 2, 1769, Portola's party climbed the eastern side of Sweeny Ridge and doc.u.mented the large waterways that led to an open ocean. Yet despite their astonishing discovery of the San Francis...o...b..y, Portola was convinced that he had failed in the objectives of his mission. He turned his expedition south to retrace his steps back to San Diego, arriving safely on January 24, 1770.

Six years after Portola's discovery of San Francis...o...b.. land, and in the same period when Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were completing the first draft of the Declaration of Independence in the new America, Juan Manual de Ayala, a young Spanish naval lieutenant, commanded the San Carlos on a voyage to chart the waters of the San Francis...o...b..y.

After so many explorers had sailed right past it in their search for safe harbors, Ayala would be the first to log the discovery of the island of Alcatraz in 1775. Here is an excerpt from the ship's log of the San Carlos: August 11, 1775: The boat was launched and I set out to search for better anchorage for the ship. I went out toward the island I named de los Angeles (Angel Island), which is the largest in this harbor, in search of proper moorings for making water and wood; and though I found some good ones, I rather preferred to pa.s.s onward in search of another island, which when I reached it proved so arid and steep there was not even a boat-harbor there; I named this island La Isla de los Alcatrazes (Island of the Pelicans) because of their being so plentiful there. After this I attempted to reach the SW sh.o.r.e at the mouth of the of the inlet running to the SE, in order to examine a bight, but neither wind or current allowing it, I returned aboard the San Carlos at 5:30 p.m.