A Treatise on Meteorological Instruments.

by Henry Negretti and Joseph Zambra.

PREFACE.

The national utilisation of Meteorology in forewarning of storms, and the increasing employment of instruments as weather indicators, render a knowledge of their construction, principles, and practical uses necessary to every well-informed person. Impressed with the idea that we shall be supplying an existing want, and aiding materially the cause of Meteorological Science, in giving a plain description of the various instruments now in use, we have endeavoured, in the present volume, to condense such information as is generally required regarding the instruments used in Meteorology; the description of many of which could only be found in elaborate scientific works, and then only briefly touched upon. Every Meteorological Instrument now in use being fully described, with adequate directions for using, the uninitiated will be enabled to select those which seem to them best adapted to their requirements. With accounts of old or obsolete instruments we have avoided troubling the reader; on the other hand, we were unwilling to neglect those which, though of no great practical importance, are still deserving of notice from their being either novel or ingenious, or which, without being strictly scientific, are in great demand as simple weather-gla.s.ses and articles of trade.

We trust, therefore, that the work (however imperfect), bearing in mind the importance of the subject, will be acceptable to general readers, as well as to those for whose requirements it has been prepared.

The rapid progress made in the introduction of new apparatus of acknowledged superiority has rendered the publication of some description absolutely necessary. The Report of the Jurors for Cla.s.s XIII. of the International Exhibition, 1862, on Meteorological Instruments, fully bears out our a.s.sertion, as shown by the following extract:--

"The progress in the English department has been very great;--in barometers, thermometers, anemometers, and in every cla.s.s of instruments.

At the close of the Exhibition of 1851, there seemed to have arisen a general anxiety among the majority of makers to pay every attention to all the essentials necessary for philosophical instruments, not only in their old forms, but also with the view of obtaining other and better forms.

This desire has never ceased; and no better idea can be given of the continued activity in these respects, than the number of patents taken out for improvements in meteorological instruments in the interval between the recent and preceding exhibitions, which amount to no less than forty-two."

* * * "In addition to numerous improvements patented by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, there is another of great importance, which they did not patent, viz. enamelling the tubes of thermometers, enabling the makers to use finer threads of mercury in the construction of all thermometers; for the contrast between the opaque mercury and the enamel back of the tubes is so great, that the finest bore or thread of mercury, which at one time could not be seen without the greatest difficulty, is now seen with facility; and throughout the British and Foreign departments, the makers have availed themselves of this invention, the tubes of all being made with enamelled backs. It is to be hoped that the recent exhibition will give a fresh stimulus to the desire of improvement, and that the same rate of progress will be continued."

To fulfil the desire of the International Jury in the latter portion of the above extract will be the constant study of

NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA.

_1st January, 1864._

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

In the pursuits and investigations of the science of Meteorology, which is essentially a science of observation and experiment, instruments are required for ascertaining, 1. the pressure of the atmosphere at any time or place; 2. the temperature of the air; 3. the absorption and radiation of the sun's heat by the earth's surface; 4. the humidity of the air; 5.

the amount and duration of rainfall; 6. the direction, the horizontal pressure, and the velocity of winds; 7. the electric condition of the atmosphere, and the prevalence and activity of ozone.

CHAPTER I.

INSTRUMENTS FOR ASCERTAINING THE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1.]

=1. Principle of the Barometer.=--The first instrument which gave the exact measure of the pressure of the atmosphere was invented by Torricelli, in 1643. It is constructed as follows:--A gla.s.s tube, CD (fig.

1), about 34 inches long, and from two to four-tenths of an inch in diameter of bore, having one end closed, is filled with mercury. In a cup, B, a quant.i.ty of mercury is also poured. Then, placing a finger securely over the open end, C, invert the tube vertically over the cup, and remove the finger when the end of the tube dips into the mercury. The mercury in the tube then partly falls out, but a column, AB, about 30 inches in height, remains supported. This column is a weight of mercury, the pressure of which upon the surface of that in the cup is precisely equivalent to the corresponding pressure of the atmosphere which would be exerted in its place if the tube were removed. As the atmospheric pressure varies, the length of this mercurial column also changes. It is by no means constant in its height; in fact, it is very seldom stationary, but is constantly rising or falling through a certain extent of the tube, at the level of the sea, near which the above experiment is supposed to be performed. It is, therefore, an instrument by which the fluctuations taking place in the pressure of the atmosphere, arising from changes in its weight and elasticity, can be shown and measured. It has obtained the name _Barometer_, or measurer of heaviness,--a word certainly not happily expressive of the utility of the invention. If the bore of the barometer tube be uniform throughout its length, and have its sectional area equal to a square inch, it is evident that the length of the column, which is supported by the pressure of the air, expresses the number of cubic inches of mercury which compose it. The weight of this mercury, therefore, represents the statical pressure of the atmosphere upon a square inch of surface. In England the annual mean height of the barometric column, reduced to the sea-level and to the temperature of 32 Fahrenheit, is about 2995 inches. A cubic inch of mercury at this temperature has been ascertained to weigh 048967 lbs. avoirdupois. Hence, 2995 048967= 1467 lbs., is the mean value of the pressure of the atmosphere on each square inch of surface, near the sea-level, about the lat.i.tude of 50 degrees. Nearer the equator this mean pressure is somewhat greater; nearer the poles, somewhat less. For common practical calculations it is a.s.sumed to be 15 lbs. on the square inch. When it became apparent that the movements of the barometric column furnished indications of the probable coming changes in the weather, an attempt was made to deduce from recorded observations the barometric height corresponding to the most notable characteristics of weather. It was found that for fine dry weather the mercury in the barometer at the sea-level generally stood above 30 inches; changeable weather happened when it ranged from 30 to 29 inches, and when rainy or stormy weather occurred it was even lower. Hence, it became the practice to place upon barometer scales words indicatory of the weather likely to accompany, or follow, the movements of the mercury; whence the instruments bearing them obtained the name "Weather Gla.s.ses."

=2. Construction of Barometers.=--In order that the instrument may be portable, it must be made a fixture and mounted on a support; and, further, to render it scientifically or even practically useful, many precautions are required in its construction. The following remarks apply to the construction of all barometers:--Mercury is universally employed, because it is the heaviest of fluids, and therefore measures the atmospheric pressure by the shortest column. Water barometers have been constructed, and they require to be at least 34 feet long. Oil, or other fluids, might be used. Mercury, however, has other advantages: it has feeble volatility, and does not adhere to gla.s.s, if pure. Oxidised, or otherwise impure mercury, may adhere to gla.s.s; moreover, such mercury would not have the density of the pure metal, and therefore the barometric column would be either greater or less than it should be. The mercury of commerce generally contains lead; sometimes traces of iron and sulphur. It is necessary, therefore, for the manufacturer to purify the mercury; and this is done by washing it with diluted acetic, or sulphuric acid, which dissolves the impurities. No better test can be found for ascertaining if the mercury be pure than that of filling a delicate thermometer tube; if, on exhausting the air from this thermometer, the mercury will freely run up and down the bore, which is probably one thousandth of an inch in diameter, the mercury from which this thermometer was made will be found fit for any purpose, and with it a tube may be filled and boiled, not only of one inch, but even of two inches diameter. In all barometers it is requisite that the s.p.a.ce above the mercurial column should be completely void of air and aqueous vapour, because these gases, by virtue of their elasticity, would depress the column. To exclude these the mercury is introduced, and boiled in the tube, over a charcoal fire, kept up for the purpose. In this manner the air and vapour which adhere to the gla.s.s are expanded, and escape away. One can tell whether a barometer has been properly "boiled," as it is termed, by simply holding the tube in a slanting direction and allowing the mercury to strike the top. If the boiling has been well performed, the mercury will give a clear, metallic sound; if not, a dull, flat sound, showing some air to be present.

When the mercury in a barometer tube rises or falls, the level of the mercury in the cup, or _cistern_, as it is generally termed, falls or rises by a proportionate quant.i.ty, which depends upon the relative areas of the interior of the tube and of the cistern. It is necessary that this should be taken into consideration in ascertaining the exact height of the column. If a fixed scale is applied to the tube, the correct height may be obtained by applying a correction for capacity. A certain height of the mercury is ascertained to be accurately measured by the scale, and should be marked on the instrument as the _neutral point_. Above this point the heights measured are all less, and below, all more, than they should be.

The ratio between the internal diameters of the tube and cistern (which should also be stated on the instrument, as, for instance, capac. 1/50) supplies the data for finding the correction to be applied. This correction is obviated by constructing the cistern so as to allow of the surface of the mercury in it being adjustable to the commencement of the fixed scale, as by Fortin's or Negretti's plan. It is also unnecessary in barometers constructed on what is now called the "Kew method." These will all be detailed in their proper place. The tube, being fixed to the cistern, may have a moveable scale applied to it. But such an arrangement requires the utmost care and skill in observing, and is seldom seen except in first-cla.s.s Observatories.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2.]

=3. Fortin's Barometer.=--Fortin's plan of constructing a barometer cistern is shown in fig. 2. The cistern is formed of a gla.s.s cylinder, which allows of the level of the mercury within being seen. The bottom of the cylinder is made of sheep-skin or leather, like a bag, so as to allow of being pushed up or lowered by means of a screw, D B, worked from beneath. This screw moves through the bottom of a bra.s.s cylinder, C C, which is fixed outside, and protects the gla.s.s cylinder containing the mercury. At the top of the interior of the cistern is fixed a small piece of ivory, A, the point of which exactly coincides with the zero of the scale. This screw and moveable cistern-bottom serve also to render the barometer portable, by confining the mercury in the tube, and preventing its coming into the cistern, which is thus made too small to receive it.

4. STANDARD BAROMETER.

Fig. 3 represents a Standard Barometer on Fortin's principle. The barometer tube is enclosed and protected by a tube of bra.s.s extending throughout its whole length; the upper portion of the bra.s.s tube has two longitudinal openings opposite each other; on one side of the front opening is the barometrical scale of English inches, divided to show, by means of a vernier, 1/500th of an inch; on the opposite side is sometimes divided a scale of French millimetres, reading also by a vernier to 1/10th of a millimetre (see directions for reading the vernier, page 7). A thermometer, C, is attached to the frame, and divided to degrees, which can be read to tenths; it is necessary for ascertaining the temperature of the instrument, in order to correct the observed height of the barometer.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3.]

As received by the observer, the barometer will consist of two parts, packed separately for safety in carriage,--1st, the barometer tube and cistern, filled with mercury, the bra.s.s tube, with its divided scale and thermometer; and 2nd, a mahogany board, with bracket at top, and bra.s.s ring with three adjusting screws at bottom.

_Directions for fixing the Barometer._--In selecting a position for a barometer, care should be taken to place it so that the sun cannot shine upon it, and that it is not affected by direct heat from a fire. The cistern should be from two to three feet above the ground, which will give a height for observing convenient to most persons. A standard barometer should be compared with an observatory standard of acknowledged accuracy, to determine its index error; which, as such instruments are graduated by micrometrical apparatus of great exact.i.tude, will be constant for all parts of the scale. It should be capable of turning on its axis by a movement of the hand, so that little difficulty can ever be experienced in obtaining a good light for observation. Having determined upon the position in which to place the instrument, fix the mahogany board as nearly vertical as possible, and ascertain if the barometer is perfect and free from air, in the following manner:--lower the screw at the bottom of the cistern several turns, so that the mercury in the tube, when held upright, may fall two or three inches from the top; then slightly incline the instrument from the vertical position, and if the mercury in striking the top elicit a sharp tap, the instrument is perfect. Supposing the barometer to be in perfect condition, as it is almost sure to be, it is next suspended on the bra.s.s bracket, its cistern pa.s.sing through the ring at bottom, and allowed to find its vertical position, after which it is firmly clamped by means of the three thumb-screws.

_To Remove the Instrument when fixed to another Position._--If it should be necessary to remove the barometer,--first, by means of the adjusting screw, drive the mercury to the top of the tube, turning it gently when it is approaching the top, and cease directly any resistance is experienced; next, remove from the upper bracket or socket; lift the instrument and invert it, carrying it with its lower end upwards.

_Directions for taking an Observation._--Before making an observation, the mercury in the cistern must be raised or lowered by means of the thumb-screw, F, until the ivory point, E, and its reflected image in the mercury, D, are just in contact; the vernier is then moved by means of the milled head, until its lower termination just excludes the light from the top of the mercurial column; the reading is then taken by means of the scale on the limb and the vernier. The vernier should be made to read upward in all barometers, unless for a special object, as this arrangement admits of the most exact setting. In observing, the eye should be placed in a right line with the fore and back edges of the lower termination of the vernier; and this line should be made to form a tangent to the apex of the mercurial column. A small reflector placed behind the vernier and moving with it, so as to a.s.sist in throwing the light through the back slit of the bra.s.s frame on to the gla.s.s tube, is advantageous; and the observer's vision may be further a.s.sisted by the aid of a reading lens.

The object is, in these Standard Barometers, to obtain an exact reading, which can only be done by having the eye, the fore part of the zero edge of the vernier, the top of the mercurial column, and the back of the vernier, in the same horizontal plane.

_Uniformity of Calibre._--The diameter of that part of the tube through which the oscillations of the mercury will take place is very carefully examined to insure uniformity of calibre, and only those tubes are used which are as nearly as possible of the same diameter throughout. The size of the bore should be marked on the frame of the barometer in tenths and hundredths of an inch. A correction due to capillary action, and depending on the size of the tube, must be applied to the readings.

=5. Correction due to Capillarity.=--When an open tube of small bore is plunged into mercury, the fluid will not rise to the same level inside as it has outside. Hence, the effect of capillary action is to depress the mercurial column; and the more so the smaller the tube. The following table gives the correction for tubes in ordinary use:--

Diameter Depression, in Depression, in of tube. boiled tubes. unboiled tubes.

INCH. INCH. INCH.

060 0002 0004 055 0003 0005 050 0003 0007 045 0005 0010 040 0007 0015 035 0010 0021 015 0044 0029 010 0070 0041 030 0014 0058 025 0020 0086 020 0029 0140

This correction is always additive to the observed reading of the barometer.

=6. Correction due to Temperature.=--In all kinds of mercurial barometers attention must be given to the temperature of the mercury. As this metal expands and contracts very much for variations of temperature, its density alters correspondingly, and in consequence the height of the barometric column also varies. To ascertain the temperature of the mercury, a thermometer is placed near the tube, and is sometimes made to dip into the mercury in the cistern. The freezing point of water, 32F., is the temperature to which all readings of barometers must be reduced, in order to make them fairly comparable. The reduction may be effected by calculation, but the practical method is by tables for the purpose; and for these tables we refer the reader to the works mentioned at the end of this book.

=7. Correction due to Height above the Half-tide Level.=--Further, in order that barometrical observations generally may be made under similar circ.u.mstances, the readings, corrected for capacity, capillarity, and temperature, should be reduced to what they would be at the sea-level, by adding a correction corresponding to the height above the mean level of the sea, or of half-tide. For practical purposes of comparison with barometric pressure at other localities, add one-tenth of an inch to the reading for each hundred feet of elevation above the sea. For scientific accuracy this will not suffice, but a correction must be obtained by means of Schuckburg's formula, or tables computed therefrom.

=8. The Barometer Vernier.=--The _vernier_, an invaluable contrivance for measuring small s.p.a.ces, was invented by Peter Vernier, about the year 1630. The barometer scale is divided into inches and tenths. The vernier enables us to accurately subdivide the tenths into hundredths, and, in first-cla.s.s instruments, even to thousandths of an inch. It consists of a short scale made to pa.s.s along the graduated fixed scale by a sliding motion, or preferably by a rack-and-pinion motion, the vernier being fixed on the rack, which is moved by turning the milled head of the pinion. The principle of the vernier, to whatever instrumental scale applied, is that the divisions of the moveable scale are to those in an equal length of the fixed scale in the proportion of two numbers which differ from each other by unity.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5.]