As pastes are singly refracting and hence lack dichroism, the pleasing variety of color of the true ruby cannot be had in a paste imitation, but the public is not critical enough to notice this lack. The expert would, however, note it and could detect the imitation by that difference as well as by the lack of double refraction. The use of direct sunlight and a white card as already explained in the lesson on double refraction (Lesson III.) will serve to expose the singleness of refraction of paste imitations. Spinels and garnets are about the only true gems (except diamond) that are single refracting. Any other color stone should show double refraction when tested by the sunlight-card method. The file test will also expose any paste imitation as all the very brilliant pastes are fairly soft.

DOUBLETS. To give better wearing quality to paste imitations the _doublet_ was devised. This name is used because the product is in two parts, a lower or back portion of paste and an upper or top portion of some cheap but hard genuine stone. Garnet is probably used for this purpose to a greater extent than any other material, although quartz or colorless topaz will do very well.

The usual arrangement of the parts can be seen in Fig. 15, the garnet covering only a part of the upper surface, namely the table part and a small portion of the sloping surface of the top. In high cla.s.s doublets the hard mineral covers the paste to the girdle. (See Fig. 16.) The color of the garnet does not interfere seriously with that of the paste.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 15. ONE FORM OF CHEAP DOUBLET.]

If a "diamond" doublet is desired the slice of garnet is made nearly as thin as paper and it covers only the table of the brilliant. It is thus practically colorless. A thin slice of red garnet over a green background is not noticeable, as all the red is absorbed in pa.s.sing through the green material beneath. With a blue base, the red upper layer may give a very slight purple effect. With yellow a slight orange tint results and of course with a red back no perceptible difference would result.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 16. ANOTHER FORM OF DOUBLET.]

The two materials are cemented together, by means of a transparent waterproof cement. The _triplet_ has already been described in Lesson XII. It is even better than the doublet and more difficult to detect.

Both the file test and the sunlight-card test serve to detect doublets, as well as paste imitations, except that in the file test with the fully protected doublet the _back_ of the stone must be tested with the file, as the girdle and top are of hard material.

In the sunlight-card test of a doublet (the refraction of garnet being single like that of gla.s.s), single images of the facets will be had on the card when the sunlight is reflected onto it. A reflection of the lower or inner surface of the garnet top can be seen also and this serves to still further identify a doublet or a triplet. The appearance of this reflection is much like that received on the card from the top of the table. It is larger than the reflections of the smaller facets and is but little colored.

TESTS FOR DOUBLETS. A trained eye can also detect a doublet or a triplet by noting the difference in the character of the surface l.u.s.ter of the garnet part and of the gla.s.s part. Garnet takes a keener and more resinous l.u.s.ter than gla.s.s. By tipping the doublet so that light is reflected to the eye from the sloping top surface, one can see at once where the garnet leaves off and the gla.s.s begins. Even through a show window one can tell a doublet in this way although here it is necessary to move oneself, instead of the stone, until a proper position is obtained to get a reflection from the top slope of the doublet.

If the garnet covers the whole top of the imitation then it is not possible to get so direct a comparison, but even here one can look first at the top surface and then at the back and thus compare the l.u.s.ter. It is also well to closely examine with a lens the region of the girdle, to see if any evidence of the joining of two materials can be seen.

Frequently the lapidary bevels the edge so as to bring the line of junction between real and false material at the sharp edge of the bevel.

Boiling a doublet in alcohol or chloroform will frequently dissolve the cement and separate the parts.

The dichroscope also serves to detect the false character of doublets and paste imitations, as neither shows dichroism. As rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and in fact most colored stones of value, show distinct dichroism, this test is a sure one against these imitations.

Triplets and doublets too may be exposed by dipping them _sidewise_ into oil, thus removing the prismatic refraction almost completely, as the oil has about the same refractive index as the stone. One can then look directly through gla.s.s and garnet, or other topping material, separately, and each material then shows its proper color. Thus zones of color appear in a doublet or triplet when under the oil. A real gem would appear almost uniform in color under these conditions.

Round gas bubbles can frequently be found in paste, and hence in the paste part of a doublet. Also, the natural flaws of the real stone are never found in paste, but may be present in the real stone part of a doublet or a triplet. Some imitation emeralds on the market, however, have been made in a way to counterfeit the flaws and faults generally found in this stone.

ALTERED STONES. In addition to the out and out imitations made of paste, and the doublets, there are numerous imitations current in the trade that are made by staining or by otherwise altering the color of some genuine but inexpensive gem material.

For example, large quant.i.ties of somewhat porous chalcedony from Brazil are stained and sold in imitation of natural agate or sard or other stones. In many cases the staining is superficial, so that the stone has to be shaped before it is stained, then stained and polished.

Large quant.i.ties of slightly crackled quartz are stained to resemble lapis lazuli, and sold, usually with the t.i.tle "Swiss Lapis." A file test will reveal the character of this imitation, as it is harder than a file, while true lapis is softer. The color too is never of so fine a blue as that of fine lapis. It has a Prussian blue effect.

Turquoises of inferior color are also sometimes stained to improve them. A better product is made artificially.

Opals are sometimes impregnated with organic matter, which is then charred, perhaps with sulphuric acid, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of black opal.

Opals are also imitated by adding oxide of tin to gla.s.s, thus imparting a slight milkiness to it. The imitation is then shaped from this gla.s.s by molding, and the back of the cabochon is given an irregular surface, which may be set over tinsel to give the effect of "fire."

Pale stones are frequently mounted over foil, or in enameled or stained settings and thus their color is seemingly improved.

Diamonds of poor color are occasionally "painted"; often the back of the brilliant is treated with a violet dyestuff, which even in so small an amount that it is difficult to detect, will neutralize the yellow of the stone and make it appear to be of a fine blue-white color. The "painting" is, of course, not permanent, so that such treatment of a diamond with a view to selling it is fraudulent. The painted stone may be detected by washing it with alcohol, when the dye will be removed and the off-color will become apparent. If the stone is unset one can see with a lens a wavery metallic appearance on the surfaces that have been "painted." This effect is due to the action of the very thin film of dye upon the light that falls upon it.

Besides the staining of genuine materials, they are sometimes altered in color by heat treatment, and this topic will be discussed in the next lesson.

LESSON XXVI

ALTERATION OF THE COLOR OF PRECIOUS STONES

Many gem minerals change color when more or less strongly heated.

Extreme heat whitens many colored materials completely.

"PINKED TOPAZ." John Ruskin advises us to "seek out and cast aside all manner of false or dyed or altered stones" but, in spite of his advice, perhaps the most justifiable use of heat treatment is that which alters the color of true topaz from a wine-yellow to a fine pink. It would appear that the wine-yellow is a composite color composed of pink and yellow and that the pink const.i.tuent is less easily changed by heat than is the yellow one. If too high a temperature is used both colors disappear and white topaz results. As the latter is abundant in nature and of little value, such a result is very undesirable. Pink topaz, however, is very rare, and until recently, when pink tourmaline from California and Madagascar, and pink beryl (morganite) from Madagascar, became available in quant.i.ty, the "pinked" topazes had but few competing gems, and thus commanded a higher price than the natural topazes. Of course, care has to be taken in heating a mineral to raise and lower the temperature slowly, in order to avoid sudden and unequal expansion or contraction, which would crack and ruin the specimen, as the writer learned to his sorrow with the first topaz that he tried to "pink."

SPANISH TOPAZ. Another material that gains a more valuable color by heat treatment is the smoky quartz of Spain, which, on being gently heated, yields the so-called Spanish topaz. Some amethysts are altered to a yellow color by mild heating. Too great a temperature completely decolorizes colored quartz. Some dark quartz yields a nearly garnet red product, after heating.

ZIRCON. Slight increase in temperature causes many of the zircons from Ceylon to change markedly in color. An alcohol flame serves admirably to effect the change, care being taken to warm up the stone very gradually and to cool it slowly. Drafts should be prevented, as they might suddenly cool the stone and crack it. Some zircons become completely whitened by this treatment. At the same time they increase markedly in density and in refractive index and thus become even more snappy and brilliant than when colored. One is tempted to suspect that the "s.p.a.ce lattice" of the crystal has had its strata drawn closer together during the heating and left permanently in a closer order of arrangement. Other zircons merely become lighter colored and less attractive. Some of the whitened stones again become more or less colored on exposure to strong light. Ultra-violet light will sometimes restore these to a fine deep color in a short time.

The whitened zircon, when finely cut in the brilliant form, with truly flat facets and sharp edges and with a top angle of about 39 degrees and a back angle of about 44 degrees, so closely resembles a diamond that it will deceive almost anyone on casual inspection. The expert, even, may be deceived, if caught off his guard. The writer has a fine specimen of a little over one carat, with which he has deceived many jewelers and p.a.w.nbrokers, and even an importer or two. If it is presented as a stone that closely resembles diamond your expert will say: "Yes, it is pretty good, but it would never fool me." If, however, you catch him off his guard by suggesting, perhaps, "Did you ever see a diamond with a polished girdle?", then he will look at it with interest, remark on its fine color and "make," and never think of challenging its character.

The refractive index of the dense type of zircon is so high (1.92-1.98) that it lights up well over most of the surface of the brilliant when cut, as above indicated, and does not show markedly the weak dark center shown by white sapphire, white topaz, colorless quartz, colorless beryl, and paste, when seen from the side. Moreover, the l.u.s.ter of zircon is nearly adamantine, so the expert does not miss the cold metallic glitter as he would with any other white stone. The color dispersion, too, is so high (86% as great as in diamond) that the zircon has considerable "fire," and thus the casual handler is again deceived. A fine white zircon is really prettier than a _poor_ diamond. It cannot compare, however, with a _fine_ diamond. It would never do to let an expert see your zircon beside even a fair diamond. The zircon would look "sleepy."

It is only when no direct comparison is possible, and when the expert is not suspicious, that a zircon can deceive him. Of course, the use of the scientific tests of the earlier lessons will, at once, detect the character of a whitened zircon. The hardness is but 7.5, the refraction so strongly double that the edges of the back facets appear double-lined when viewed through the table with a lens, and the specific gravity is 4.69. Double spots of light appear on the card when the sunlight-card test is applied. Hence, it is easy to detect zircon by any of these tests if there is reason to suspect that it has been subst.i.tuted for diamond.

CORUNDUM GEMS. Rubies of streaky color are said to be improved by careful heating. Usually ruby undergoes a series of color changes on being heated, but returns through the same series in reverse order on being cooled, and finally resumes its original color. Strong heating will whiten some yellow sapphire. The author thus obtained a white sapphire from a crystal of light yellow material.

It is interesting to note that the corundum gems undergo marked change in color under the influence of radium. A regular series of changes is said to be produced in white sapphire by this means, the final color being yellow. This color may then be removed by heat and the series run through again. It is not stated that a fine red has ever been thus obtained. Perhaps Nature, by her slower methods, using the faint traces of radio-active material in the rocks, reddens the corundum of Burmah at her leisure, and finally arrives at the much sought "pigeon blood"

color. It is said that the natives of India have a legend to the effect that the white sapphires of the mines are "ripening rubies," and that one day they will mature. Perhaps they are not far wrong.

DIAMOND. Diamonds of yellowish tint may be improved in color by the use of high-power radium. At present the latter is so rare and costly that there is no evidence of its commercial use for this purpose. Scientists have brought about the change to a light blue as an experiment. It is not yet known whether the change will be permanent. Perhaps here again Nature has antic.i.p.ated man's discovery and made the fine bluish-violet Brazilian diamonds (which fluoresce to a deep violet under an arc light, and which shine for a few moments in the dark after exposure to light) by a.s.sociating them for ages with radio-active material. Some of the African stones also have these characteristics.

Aside from the change in the color of diamond that may be brought about by means of radium, the mineral is extremely reluctant to alter its color. Many experimenters besides the author have tried in vain a host of expedients in the hope of finding some way to improve the color of diamond. About the only noticeable alteration that the author has been able to bring about was upon a brown diamond, the color of which was made somewhat lighter and more ashen by heating it in a current of hydrogen gas to a low red heat.

LESSON XXVII

PEARLS

Unlike the gems that have been so far considered, the pearl is not a mineral, but is of organic origin, that is, it is the product of a living organism. There are two princ.i.p.al types of molluscs which yield true pearls in commercial quant.i.ties. The best known of the first type is the so-called pearl oyster (_Meleagrina margaritifera_). The pearl mussel of fresh water streams is of the second type (_Unio margaritifera_). Other species of molluscs having pearly linings to their sh.e.l.ls may produce pearls, but most of the pearls of commerce come from one or the other of the two varieties mentioned.

STRUCTURE OF PEARL. The structure and material of the true pearl must be first understood in order to understand the underlying reasons for the remarkable beauty of this gem. Pearls are composed partly of the mineral substance calcium carbonate (chemically the same as marble) and partly of a tough, h.o.r.n.y substance of organic nature called conchiolin. The sh.e.l.l of the pearl-bearing mollusc is also composed of these two substances. Calcium carbonate may crystallize in either of two forms, calcite or aragonite. In marble we have calcite. In the outer portions of the sh.e.l.l of the pearl oyster the calcium carbonate is in the form of calcite, but in the inner nacreous lining and in the pearl itself the mineral is present as aragonite. This is deposited by the mollusc in very thin crystalline layers in the h.o.r.n.y layers of conchiolin, so that the lining of the sh.e.l.l is built of approximately parallel layers of mineral and of animal substance. In the normal sh.e.l.l this is all that takes place, but in the case of a mollusc whose interior is invaded by any small source of irritation, such as a borer, or a grain of sand, or other bit of foreign material, a process of alternate deposit of conchiolin and of aragonite goes on upon the invading matter, thus forming a pearl.

The pearl is built in layers like an onion. In shape it may be spherical, or pear-shaped, or b.u.t.ton-shaped or of any less regular shape than these. The regular shapes are more highly valued. The spherical shape is of greatest value, other things being equal. Next comes the drop or pear shape, then the b.u.t.ton shape, and after these the host of irregular shapes known to the jeweler as "baroques." The river man who gathers mussels calls these odd-shaped pearls "slugs."

Let us now attempt to understand how the beautiful l.u.s.ter and iridescence of the pearl are related to the layer-like structure of the gem. In the first place, it should be understood that both conchiolin and aragonite are translucent, that is, they pa.s.s light to a certain extent. The layers being exceedingly thin, light can penetrate a considerable number of them if not otherwise deflected from its course.

We thus obtain reflections not merely from the outer surface of a pearl, but from layer after layer within the gem and all these reflections reach the eye in a blended reflection of great beauty. The l.u.s.ter of a pearl is then not purely a _surface l.u.s.ter_ in the usual sense of that term, but it is a l.u.s.ter due to many superposed surfaces. It is so different from other types of l.u.s.ter that we describe it merely as _pearly l.u.s.ter_ even though we find it in some other material, as, for example in certain sapphires, in which it is due to a similar layer-like arrangement of structure.

ORIENT. The fineness of the l.u.s.ter of a pearl, or as is said in the trade, the _orient_, depends upon the number of layers that take part in the reflection, and this number in turn depends upon the translucency of the material and the thinness of the layers. Very fine pearls usually have very many, very thin layers taking part in the reflection. The degree of translucency, considered apart, is sometimes called the "water" of the pearl.

In addition to their beautiful l.u.s.ter, many pearls display iridescence, and this is due in part, as in the case of the pearly lining of the sh.e.l.l (mother of pearl) to overlapping of successive layers, like the overlapping of shingles on a roof. This gives rise to a lined surface, much like the diffraction grating of the physicist, which is made by ruling a gla.s.s plate with thousands of parallel lines to the inch. Such a grating produces wonderful spectra, in which the rainbow colors are widely separated and very vivid. The princ.i.p.al on which this separation of light depends is known as diffraction and cannot be explained here, but a similar effect takes place when light falls on the naturally ruled surface of a pearl and helps produce the play of colors known as iridescence. The thin layers themselves also help to produce the iridescence by interference of light much as in the case of the opal, which has already been discussed.