The following states in brief the theory of universal salvation.

It is to be borne in mind, however, that certain beings who fell away from that one beginning of which we have spoken, have given themselves to such wickedness and malice as to be deemed altogether undeserving of that training and instruction by which the human race while in the flesh are trained and instructed with the a.s.sistance of the heavenly powers: they continue, on the contrary, in a state of enmity and opposition to those who are receiving this instruction and teaching. And hence it is that the whole life of mortals is full of certain struggles and trials, caused by the opposition and enmity against us of those who fell from a better condition without at all looking back, and who are called the devil and his angels, and other orders of evil, which the Apostle cla.s.sed among the opposing powers. But whether any of these orders, who act under the government of the devil and obey his wicked commands, will be able in a future world to be converted to righteousness because of their possessing the faculty of freedom of will, or whether persistent and inveterate wickedness may be changed by habit into a kind of nature, you, reader, may decide; yet so that neither in those things which are seen and temporal nor in those which are unseen and eternal one portion is to differ wholly from the final unity and fitness of things. But in the meantime, both in those temporal worlds which are seen, and in those eternal worlds which are invisible, all those beings are arranged according to a regular plan, in the order and degree of merit; so that some of them in the first, others in the second, some even in the last times, after having undergone heavier and severer punishments, endured for a lengthened period and for many ages, so to speak, improved by this stern method of training, and restored at first by the instruction of angels and subsequently advanced by powers of a higher grade, and thus advancing through each stage to a better condition, reach even to that which is invisible and eternal, having travelled by a kind of training through every single office of the heavenly powers. From which, I think, this will follow as an inferencethat every rational nature can, in pa.s.sing from one order to another, go through each to all, and advance from all to each, while made the subject of various degrees of proficiency and failure, according to its own actions and endeavors, put forth in the enjoyment of its power of freedom of will.

(_k_) Origen, _De Principiis_, IV, 9-15. (MSG, 11:360, 363, 373.)

Allegorism.

The method of exegesis known as allegorism, whereby the speculations of the Christian theologians were provided with an apparently scriptural basis, was taken over from the Jewish and Greek philosophers and theologians who employed it in the study of their sacred books. Origen, it should be added, contributed not a little to a sound grammatical interpretation as well. For Porphyrys criticism of Origens methods of exegesis see Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 19.

Ch. 9. Now the cause, in all the points previously enumerated, of the false opinions and of the impious statements or ignorant a.s.sertions about G.o.d appears to be nothing else than that the Scriptures are not understood according to their spiritual meaning, but are interpreted according to the mere letter. And therefore to those who believe that the sacred books are not the compositions of men, but were composed by the inspirations of the Holy Spirit, according to the will of the Father of all things through Jesus Christ, and that they have come down to us, we must point out the modes of interpretation which appear correct to us, who cling to the standard of the heavenly Church according to the succession of the Apostles of Jesus Christ. Now that there are certain mystical economies made known in the Holy Scriptures, all, even the most simple of those who adhere to the word, have believed; but what these are, the candid and modest confess they know not. If, then, one were to be perplexed about the incest of Lot with his daughters, and about the two wives of Abraham, and the two sisters married to Jacob, and the two handmaids who bore him children, they can return no other answer than thisthat these are mysteries not understood by us.

Ch. 11. The way, then, as it seems to me, in which we ought to deal with the Scriptures and extract from them their meaning is the following, which has been ascertained from the sayings [of the Scriptures] themselves. By Solomon in the Proverbs we find some rule as this enjoined respecting the teaching of the divine writings, And do thou portray them in a threefold manner, in counsel and knowledge, to answer words of truth to them who propose them to thee [_cf._ Prov. 22:20 _f._, LXX]. One ought, then, to portray the ideas of Holy Scripture in a threefold manner upon his soul, in order that the simple man may be edified by the flesh, as it were, of Scripture, for so we name the obvious sense; while he who has ascended a certain way may be edified by the soul, as it were. The perfect man, and he who resembles those spoken of by the Apostle, when he says, We speak wisdom among them that are perfect, but not the wisdom of the world, nor of the rulers of this world, who come to nought; but we speak the wisdom of G.o.d in a mystery, the hidden wisdom, which G.o.d hath ordained before the ages unto our glory [I Cor. 2:6, 7], may receive edification from the spiritual law, which was a shadow of things to come. For as man consists of body and soul and spirit, so in the same way does the Scripture consist, which has been arranged by G.o.d for the salvation of men.

Ch. 12. But as there are certain pa.s.sages which do not contain at all the corporeal sense, as we shall show in the following, there are also places where we must seek only for the soul, as it were, and spirit of Scripture.

Ch. 15. But since, if the usefulness of the legislation and the sequence and beauty of the history were universally evident, we should not believe that any other thing could be understood in the Scriptures save what was obvious, the Word of G.o.d has arranged that certain stumbling-blocks, and offences, and impossibilities, should be introduced into the midst of the law and the history, in order that we may not, through being drawn away in all directions by the merely attractive nature of the language, either altogether fall away from the true doctrines, as learning nothing worthy of G.o.d, or, by not departing from the letter, come to the knowledge of nothing more divine. And this, also, we must know: that, since the princ.i.p.al aim is to announce the spiritual connection in those things that are done and that ought to be done where the Word found that things done according to the history could be adapted to these mystic senses, He made use of them, concealing from the mult.i.tude the deeper meaning; but where in the narrative of the development of super-sensual things there did not follow the performance of those certain events which was already indicated by the mystical meaning the Scripture interwove in the history the account of some event that did not take place, sometimes what could not have happened; sometimes what could, but did not happen. And at other times impossibilities are recorded for the sake of the more skilful and inquisitive, in order that they may give themselves to the toil of investigation of what is written, and thus attain to a becoming conviction of the manner in which a meaning worthy of G.o.d must be sought out in such subjects.

44. Neo-Platonism

The last phase of h.e.l.lenic philosophy was religious. It aimed to combine the principles of many schools of the earlier period and to present a metaphysical system that would at once give a theory of being and also furnish a philosophical basis for the new religious life. This final philosophy of the antique world was Neo-Platonism. It was thoroughly eclectic in its treatment of earlier systems, but under Plotinus attained no small degree of consistency. The emphasis was laid especially upon the religious problems, and in the system it may be fairly said that the religious aspirations of heathenism found their highest and purest expression. Because it was in close touch with current culture and in its metaphysical principles was closely akin to the philosophy of the Church teachers, we find Neo-Platonism sometimes a bitter rival of Christianity, at other times a preparation for the Christian faith, as in the case of Augustine and Victorinus.

Additional source material: _Select Works of Plotinus_, translated by Thomas Taylor, ed. G. R. S. Mead, London, 1909 (contains bibliography of other translations of Plotinus, including those in French and German together with a select list of works bearing on Neo-Platonism); _Select Works of Porphyry_, trans. by Thomas Taylor, London, 1823; Taylor translated much from all the Neo-Platonists, but his other books are very scarce. Porphyrys _Epistula ad Marcellam_, trans. by Alice Zimmern, London, 1896.

Porphyry, _Ep. ad Marcellam_, 16-19. _Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula tria_, rec. A. Nauck, Leipsic, 1860.

The letter is addressed to Marcella by her husband, the philosopher Porphyry. It gives a good idea of the religious and ethical character of Neo-Platonism. For the metaphysical aspects see Plotinus, translated by T. Taylor. Porphyry was, after Plotinus, the greatest of the Neo-Platonists, and brought out most clearly those religious elements which were rivals to Christianity. His attack upon Christianity was keen and bitter, and he was consequently especially hated by the Christians. He died at Rome 304.

Ch. 16. You will honor G.o.d best when you form your soul to resemble him.

This likeness is only by virtue; for only virtue draws the soul upward toward its own kind. There is nothing greater with G.o.d than virtue; but G.o.d is greater than virtue. But G.o.d strengthens him who does what is good; but of evil deeds a wicked demon is the instigator. Therefore the wicked soul flees from G.o.d and wishes that the foreknowledge of G.o.d did not exist; and from the divine law which punishes all wickedness it shrinks away completely. But a wise mans soul is in harmony with G.o.d, ever sees Him, ever is with Him. But if that which rules takes pleasure in that which is ruled, then G.o.d cares for the wise and provides for him; and therefore is the wise man blessed, because he is under the protection of G.o.d. It is not the discourses of the wise man which are honorable before G.o.d, but his works; for the wise man, even when he keeps silence, honors G.o.d, but the ignorant man, even in praying and sacrificing, dishonors the Divinity. So the wise man alone is a priest, alone is dear to G.o.d, alone knows how to pray.

Ch. 17. He who practises wisdom practises the knowledge of G.o.d; though not always in prayer and sacrifice, practising piety toward G.o.d by his works.

For a man is not rendered agreeable to G.o.d by ruling himself according to the prejudices of men and the vain declamations of the sophists. It is the man himself who, by his own works, renders himself agreeable to G.o.d, and is deified by the conforming of his own soul to the incorruptible blessed One. And it is he himself who makes himself impious and displeasing to G.o.d, not suffering evil from G.o.d, for the Divinity does only what is good.

It is the man himself who causes his evils by his false beliefs in regard to G.o.d. The impious is not so much he who does not honor the statues of the G.o.ds as he who mixes up with the idea of G.o.d the superst.i.tions of the vulgar. As for thyself, do not hold any unworthy idea of G.o.d, of his blessedness or of his incorruptibility.

Ch. 18. The greatest fruit of piety is thisto honor the Deity according to our fatherland; not that He has need of anything, but His holy and happy Majesty invites us to offer Him our homage. Altars consecrated to G.o.d do no harm, and when neglected they render no help. But he who honors G.o.d as needing anything declares, without knowing it, that he is superior to G.o.d. Therefore it is not angering G.o.d that harms us, but not knowing G.o.d, for wrath is alien to G.o.d, because it is the product of the involuntary, and there is nothing involuntary in G.o.d. Do not then dishonor the Divinity by human false opinions, for thou wilt not thereby injure the Being enjoying eternal blessedness, from whose incorruptible nature every injury is repelled.

Ch. 19. But thou shouldest not think that I say these things when I exhort to the worship of G.o.d; for he who exhorts to this would be ridiculous; as if it were possible to doubt concerning this; and we do not worship Him aright doing this thing or thinking that about G.o.d.(69) Neither tears nor supplications turn G.o.d from His purpose; nor do sacrifices honor G.o.d, nor the mult.i.tude of offerings glorify G.o.d, but the G.o.dlike mind well governed enters into union with G.o.d. For like is of necessity joined to like. But the victims of the senseless crowd are food for the flames, and their offerings are the supplies for a licentious life to the plunderers of temples. But, as I have said to thee, let the mind within thee be the temple of G.o.d. This must be tended and adorned to become a fit dwelling for G.o.d.

Chapter III. The First General Persecution And Its Consequences

On account of various principles of the Roman law, Christians were always liable to severe penalties, and parts of the Church occasionally suffered fearfully. But it was only in exceptional cases and sporadically that the laws were enforced. There was, accordingly, no prolonged and systematic effort made to put down Christianity everywhere until the reign of Decius (249-251). The renewed interest in heathen religions and the revived patriotism in some circles occasioned in 248 by the celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome may have contributed to a renewal of hostilities against the Church. Decius undertook the military defence of the frontier. His colleague, Valerian, had charge of the internal affairs of the Empire and was the author of the measures against the Christians. Because the Church included many who had embraced the faith in the long period when the Church rarely felt the severity of the laws, many were unable to endure the persecution, and so apostatized or fell. The persecution continued only for a short time in full intensity, but it was not abandoned for a number of years. It became violent once more when Valerian became Emperor (253-260). One result of the persecutions was the rise of serious disputes, and even schisms, from differences regarding the administration of discipline by the bishops. In the case of the Novatians at Rome, a dissenting Church which spread rapidly over the Empire came into existence and lasted for more than two centuries.

45. The Decian-Valerian Persecution

The first persecution which may fairly be said to have been general in purpose and effect was that falling in the reigns of Decius (249-251) and Valerian (253-260). Of the course of the persecution we have information bearing directly upon Carthage, Alexandria, and Asia Minor. But it probably was felt very generally throughout the Church.

Additional source material: Cyprian, _De Lapsis_, Epp. 14, 22, 43; Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 39-45, VII, 11, 15, 30: for original texts see Preuschen, _a.n.a.lecta_, I, 16, 17; also R. Knopf, _Ausgewhlte Mrtyreracten_ (of these the most reliable are the martyrdom of Pionius and of Cyprian).

(_a_) Origen, _Contra Celsum_, III, 15. (MSG, 11:937.)

Origen, writing about 248, observes the probable approach of a period of persecution for the Church.

That it is not the fear of external enemies which strengthens our union is plain from the fact that this cause, by G.o.ds will, has already ceased for a considerable time. And it is probable that the secure existence, so far as this life is concerned, which is enjoyed by believers at present will come to an end, since those who in every way calumniate the Word [_i.e._, Christianity] are again attributing the frequency of rebellion to the mult.i.tude of believers and to their not being persecuted by the authorities, as in former times.

(_b_) Lactantius, _De Mortibus Persecutorum_, 3, 4. (MSL, 7:200.)

Lucius Clius Firminia.n.u.s Lactantius was of African birth. Having obtained some local fame as a teacher of rhetoric, he was appointed by Diocletian professor of that subject in his new capital of Nicomedia. This position Lactantius lost during the Diocletian persecution. He was afterward tutor of Crispus, the son of Constantine. His work _On the Death of the Persecutors_ is written in a bitter spirit, but excellent style. Although in some circles it has been customary to impeach the veracity of Lactantius, no intentional departure from historical truthfulness, apart from rhetorical coloring, which was inevitable, has been proved against him. Of late there has been some doubt as to the authorship of _De Mortibus Persecutorum_.

Ch. 3. This long peace, however, was afterward interrupted.

Ch. 4. For after many years there appeared in the world an accursed wild beast, Decius by name, who should afflict the Church. And who but a bad man would persecute righteousness? As if for this end he had been raised up to sovereign eminence, he began at once to rage against G.o.d, and at once to fall. For having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then occupied Dacia and Msia, he was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together with a great part of his army; nor could he be honored with the rights of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay as food for wild beasts and birds, as became the enemy of G.o.d.

(_c_) Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 39. (MSG, 20:660.)

The Decian persecution and the sufferings of Origen.

Decius succeeded Philip, who had reigned seven years. On account of his hatred of Philip, Decius commenced a persecution of the churches, in which Fabia.n.u.s suffered martyrdom at Rome, and Cornelius succeeded him in the episcopate. In Palestine, Alexander, bishop of the church of Jerusalem, was brought again on Christs account before the governors judgment seat in Csarea, and having acquitted himself n.o.bly in a second confession, was cast into prison, crowned with the h.o.a.ry locks of venerable age. And after his honorable and ill.u.s.trious confession at the tribunal of the governor, he fell asleep in prison, and Mazabanes became his successor in the bishopric of Jerusalem. Babylas in Antioch having, like Alexander, pa.s.sed away in prison after his confession, Fabius presided over that church.

But how many and how great things came upon Origen in the persecution, and what was their final resultas the evil demon marshalled all his forces and fought against the man with his utmost craft and power, a.s.saulting him beyond all others against whom he contended at that time; and what and how many things the man endured for the word of Christbonds and bodily tortures and torments under the iron collar and in the dungeon; and how for many days with his feet stretched four s.p.a.ces of the stocks he bore patiently the threats of fire and whatever other things were inflicted by his enemies; and how his sufferings terminated, as his judge strove eagerly with all his might not to end his life; and what words he left after these things full of comfort to those needing aid, a great many of his epistles show with truth and accuracy.

(_d_) Cyprian, _De Lapsis_, 8-10. (MSL, 4:486.)