[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 43.--Student exercising in the School Gymnasium on the Rowing Machine. (From a photograph.)]

The proper amount of exercise must vary greatly with circ.u.mstances. It may be laid down as a fairly safe rule, that a person of average height and weight, engaged in study or in any indoor or sedentary occupation, should take an amount of exercise equivalent to walking five or six miles a day.

Growing children, as a rule, take more exercise than this, while most men working indoors take far less, and many women take less exercise than men.

Exercise may be varied in many ways, the more the better; but for the most part it should always be taken in the open air.

89. Time for Exercise. It is not prudent to do hard work or take severe exercise, just before or just after a full meal. The best time is one or two hours after a meal. Vigorous exercise while the stomach is busily digesting food, may prove injurious, and is apt to result sooner or later in dyspepsia. On the other hand, severe exercise should not be taken on an empty stomach. Those who do much work or study before breakfast, should first take a light lunch, just enough to prevent any faint feeling.

With this precaution, there is no better time for moderate exercise than the early morning.

In the case of children, physical exercises should not be undertaken when they are overtired or hungry. Neither is it judicious for adults to take vigorous exercise in the evening, after a long and arduous day's work.

90. Walking, Running, and Jumping. Walking is generally regarded as the simplest and most convenient mode of taking exercise. Man is essentially a walking animal. When taken with a special object in view, it is the best and most pleasant of all physical activities. It is suited for individuals of all ages and occupations, and for residents of every climate. The child, the athlete, and the aged are all able to indulge in this simple and effective means of keeping the body in health.

In walking, the muscles of the entire body are brought into action, and the movements of breathing and the circulation of the blood are increased. The body should be erect, the chest thrown out, the head and shoulders held back, and the stride long and elastic. It is an excellent custom to add to the usefulness of this fine exercise, by deep, voluntary inhalations of pure air.

Running is an excellent exercise for children and young people, but should be sparingly indulged in after the age of thirty-five. If it be accompanied with a feeling of faintness, breathlessness, and palpitation of the heart, the exercise is too severe, and its continuance may do serious harm. Running as an exercise is beneficial to those who have kept themselves in practice and in sound condition. It brings into play nearly every muscle of the body, and thus serves to develop the power of endurance, as well as strength and capacity for rapid movement.

Jumping may well be left to boys and young men under twenty, but skipping with a rope, allied to jumping, is an admirable and beneficial form of exercise. It brings into action many muscles without putting undue strain upon any particular group.

91. Skating, Swimming, and Rowing. Skating is a delightful and invigorating exercise. It calls into play a great variety of muscles, and is admirably adapted for almost all ages. It strengthens the ankles and helps give an easy and graceful carriage to the body. Skating is especially valuable, as it can be enjoyed when other out-door exercises are not convenient.

Every child above ten years of age should be taught to swim. The art, once mastered, is never forgotten. It calls into use a wide combination of muscles. This accomplishment, so easily learned, should be a part of our education, as well as baseball or bicycling, as it may chance to any one to save his own life or that of a companion.

In many respects rowing is one of the most perfect exercises at our command. It expands the chest, strengthens the body, and gives tone to the muscles of the abdomen. It is very suitable for girls and women, as no other exercise is so well adapted to remedy the muscular defects so marked in their s.e.x. Even elderly persons can row day after day without difficulty. The degree of muscular effort required, can be regulated so that those with weak hearts and weak lungs can adjust themselves to the exercise.

92. Bicycling as an Exercise. The bicycle as a means of taking exercise has come into popular use with remarkable rapidity. Sharp compet.i.tion bids fair to make the wheel more popular and less expensive than ever. Its phenomenal use by persons of all ages and in all stations of life, is proof of the enthusiasm with which this athletic exercise is employed by women as well as by men.

Mechanical skill has removed most of the risks to health and person which once existed. A good machine, used by its owner with judgment, is the most convenient, the safest, and the least expensive means of traveling for pleasure or exercise. It is doing more than any other form of exercise to improve the bodily condition of thousands whose occupations confine them all day to sedentary work. Dependent upon no one but himself, the cyclist has his means of exercise always at hand. No preparation is necessary to take a spin of ten miles or so on the road, during a summer evening or before breakfast.

Bicycling brings into active use the muscles of the legs as well as those of the trunk and arms. It seems to benefit those who suffer from dyspepsia, constipation, and functional disorders of the liver.

A special caution must be used against overdoing in cycling, for the temptation by rivalry, making a record, by social compet.i.tion on the road, is stronger in this form of exercise than in any other, especially for young folks. Many cases have occurred of permanent injury, and even loss of life, from collapse simply by excessive exertion and exhaustion.

93. Outdoor Games and Physical Education. While outdoor games are not necessary to maintain health, yet we can scarcely overestimate the part that the great games of baseball, football, tennis, golf, and croquet, play in the physical development of young people. When played in moderation and under suitable conditions, they are most useful and beneficial exercises. They are played in the open air, and demand a great variety of vigorous muscular movement, with a considerable amount of skill and adroitness of action. These games not only involve healthful exercise, but develop all those manly and wholesome qualities so essential to success in life.

A vigorous body is well-nigh essential to success, but equally important are readiness of action, sound judgment, good temper, personal courage, a sense of fair play, and above all, a spirit of honor. Outdoor games, when played in a reasonable and honorable manner, are most efficient and practical means to develop these qualities in young people.

94. The School and Physical Education. The advantages to be derived, during the school period, from the proper care and development of the body, should be understood and appreciated by school officials, teachers, and parents. The school period is the best time to shape the lives of pupils, not mentally or morally alone, but physically as well. This is the time, by the use of a few daily exercises at school, to draw back the rounding shoulders, to form the habit of sitting and standing erect, to build up strong and comely arms and chests, and otherwise to train pupils to those methods which will serve to ripen them into vigorous and well-knit men and women.

Teachers can by a little effort gain the knowledge requisite properly to instruct their pupils in a few systematic exercises. Gratifying results will follow just as the teacher and pupils evince interest and judgment in the work. It is found by experience that pupils are not only quick to learn, but look forward eagerly to the physical exercises as an interesting change from the routine of school life.

There should be a stated time for these school exercises, as for any other duty. There can be practiced in the schoolroom a great variety of interesting and useful exercises, which call for little or no expense for apparatus. Such exercises should no more interfere with the children's usual games than any other study does. Under no circ.u.mstances should the play hours be curtailed.

95. Physical Exercises in School. Physical exercises of some sort, then, should be provided for pupils in our schools, especially in large towns and cities, where there is little opportunity for outdoor games, and they should form a part of the regular course of study. The object should be the promotion of sound health rather than the development of muscle, or performing feats of agility or strength. Exercises with dumb-bells and wands, or even without any apparatus, practiced a few times a day, for five minutes at a time, do a great deal of good. They relax the tension of body and mind, and introduce an element of pleasure into the routine of school life. They increase the breathing power and quicken the action of the heart.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 44.--Physical Exercises as carried on in Schools.

(From photographs.)]

[NOTE. "In early boyhood and youth nothing can replace the active sports so much enjoyed at this period; and while no needless restrictions should be placed upon them, consideration should be paid to the amount, and especially to the character, of the games pursued by delicate youth. For these it would be better to develop the weakened parts by means of systematic physical exercises and by lighter sports."--Dr. John M. Keating on "Physical Development" in Pepper's _Cyclopaedia of the Diseases of Children_.]

If vigorously and systematically carried out, these exercises invigorate all the tissues and organs of the body, and stimulate them to renewed activity. They serve to offset the lack of proper ventilation, faulty positions at the desks, and the prolonged inaction of the muscles. To secure the greatest benefit from physical training in school, it is important that the pupils be interested in these exercises, and consider them a recreation, and not a task[14].

96. Practical Points about Physical Exercise. The main object in undertaking systematic and graduated physical exercises is not to learn to do mere feats of strength and skill, but the better to fit the individual for the duties and the work of life. Exercises should be considered with reference to their availability from the learner's standpoint. The most beneficial exercises ordinarily are the gentle ones, in which no strain is put upon the heart and the respiration. The special aim is to secure the equal use of all the muscles, not the development of a few. The performance of feats of strength should never come within the scope of any educational scheme. Exercises which call for sustained effort, violent exertion, or sudden strain are best avoided by those who have had no preparation or training.

Regular exercise, not sudden and occasional prolonged exertion, is necessary for health. The man or woman who works in an office or store all the week, and on Sunday or a holiday indulges in a long spin on the bicycle, often receives more harm than good from the exertion. Exercise should be taken, so far as is convenient, in the open air, or in a large and well-ventilated room.[15]

After the more violent exercises, as baseball, football, a long ride on the bicycle, or even after a prolonged walk, a warm bath should be taken at the first convenient opportunity. Care should be taken to rub down thoroughly, and to change a part or all of the clothing. Exercise is comparatively valueless until the idea of taking it for health is quite forgotten in the interest and pleasure excited by the occasion. No exercise should be carried to such a degree as to cause fatigue or exhaustion. Keep warmly clad after exercise, avoid chills, and always stop exercising as soon as fatigue is felt.

Wear clothing which allows free play to all the muscles of the body. The clothing should be light, loose, and made of wool. Care should be taken not to take cold by standing about in clothes which are damp with perspiration. In brisk walking and climbing hills keep the mouth shut, especially in cold weather, and breathe through the nose, regulating the pace so that it can be done without discomfort.

97. Effect of Alcoholic Liquors and Tobacco upon Physical Culture. As a result of the unusual attention given to physical culture in the last few years, hundreds of special instructors are now employed in training young people in the theory and practice of physical exercise. These expert teachers, to do their work with thoroughness and discipline, recognize the necessity of looking after the daily living of their students. The time of rising and retiring, the hours of sleep, the dress, the care of the diet, and many other details of personal health become an important part of the training.

Recognizing the fact that alcoholic drink and tobacco are so disastrous to efficiency in any system of physical training, these instructors rigidly forbid the use of these drugs under all circ.u.mstances. While this principle is perhaps more rigorously enforced in training for athletic contests, it applies equally to those who have in view only the maintenance of health.

Books on Physical Education. There are many excellent books on physical education, which are easily obtained for reading or for reference. Among these one of the most useful and suggestive is Blackie's well-known book, "How to Get Strong and how to Stay so." This little book is full of kindly advice and practical suggestions to those who may wish to begin to practice health exercises at home with inexpensive apparatus.

For more advanced work, Lagrange's "Physiology of Bodily Exercise" and the Introduction to Maclaren's "Physical Education" may be consulted. A notable article on "Physical Training" by Joseph H. Sears, an Ex-Captain of the Harvard Football Team, may be found in Roosevelt's "In Sickness and in Health."

Price lists and catalogues of all kinds of gymnastic apparatus are easily obtained on application to firms handling such goods.

Various Systems of Physical Exercises. The recent revival of popular interest in physical education has done much to call the attention of the public to the usefulness and importance of a more thorough and systematic use of physical exercises, both at home and in the schools. It is not within the scope of this book to describe the various systems of gymnastic and calisthenic exercises now in common use in this country. For the most part they have been modified and rearranged from other sources, notably from the two great systems, i.e., Swedish and German.

For a most comprehensive work on the Swedish system, the teacher is referred to the "Swedish System of Educational Gymnastics," with 264 ill.u.s.trations, by Baron Nils Posse. There is also a small manual for teachers, called "Handbook of School Gymnastics of the Swedish Systems,"

by the same author.

Chapter V.

Food and Drink.

98. Why we need Food. The body is often compared to a steam-engine in good working order. An engine uses up fuel and water to obtain from them the energy necessary to do its work. So, we consume within our bodies certain nutritious substances to obtain from them the energy necessary for our activities. Just as the energy for the working of the engine is obtained from steam by the combustion of fuel, so the energy possessed by our bodies results from the combustion or oxidation within us of the food we eat. Unless this energy is provided for the body it will have but little power of doing work, and like an engine without steam, must soon become motionless.

99. Waste and Repair. A steam-engine from the first stroke of its piston-rod begins to wear out, and before long needs repair. All work involves waste. The engine, unless kept in thorough repair, would soon stop. So with our bodies. In their living cells chemical changes are constantly going on; energy, on the whole, is running down; complex substances are being broken up into simpler combinations. So long as life lasts, food must be brought to the tissues, and waste products carried away from them. It is impossible to move a single muscle, or even to think for one moment, without some minute part of the muscular or brain tissue becoming of no further use in the body. The transformation of dead matter into living tissue is the ever-present miracle which life presents even in its lowest forms.

In childhood the waste is small, and the amount of food taken is more than sufficient to repair the loss. Some of the extra food is used in building up the body, especially the muscles. As we shall learn in Chapter VIII., food is also required to maintain the bodily heat. Food, then, is necessary for the production of energy, for the repair of the body, for the building up of the tissues, and for the maintenance of bodily heat.

100. Nature of the Waste Material. An ordinarily healthy person pa.s.ses daily, on an average, by the kidneys about 50 ounces of waste material, of which 96 per cent is water, and from the intestines, on an average, 5 ounces, a large proportion of which is water. By the skin, in the shape of sweat and insensible perspiration, there is cast out about 23 ounces, of which 99 per cent is water; and by the lungs about 34 ounces, 10 of which are water and the remainder carbon dioxid.

Now if we omit an estimate of the undigestible remains of the food, we find that the main bulk of what daily leaves the body consists of water, carbon dioxid, and certain solid matters contained in solution in the renal secretion and the sweat. The chief of these solid matters is urea, a complex product made up of four elements,--carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Water contains only two elements, hydrogen and oxygen; and carbon dioxid also has only two, carbon and oxygen. Hence, what we daily cast out of our bodies consists essentially of these four elements in the form mainly of water, carbon dioxid, and urea.

These waste products represent the oxidation that has taken place in the tissues in producing the energy necessary for the bodily activities, just as the smoke, ashes, clinkers, and steam represent the consumption of fuel and water in the engine. Plainly, therefore, if we could restore to the body a supply of these four elements equivalent to that cast out, we could make up for the waste. The object of food, then, is to restore to the body an amount of the four elements equal to that consumed. In other words, and briefly: The purpose of food is to supply the waste of the tissues and to maintain the normal composition of the blood.