In the Swiss and Savoy Alps, as Mr. Bakewell has remarked, enormous ma.s.ses of limestone are cut through so regularly by nearly vertical partings, and these are often so much more conspicuous than the seams of stratification, that an inexperienced observer will almost inevitably confound them, and suppose the strata to be perpendicular in places where in fact they are almost horizontal.[470-A]

Now these joints are supposed to be a.n.a.logous to those partings which have been already observed to separate volcanic and plutonic rocks into cuboidal and prismatic ma.s.ses. On a small scale we see clay and starch when dry split into similar shapes, which is often caused by simple contraction, whether the shrinking be due to the evaporation of water, or to a change of temperature. It is well known that many sandstones and other rocks expand by the application of moderate degrees of heat, and then contract again on cooling; and there can be no doubt that large portions of the earth's crust have, in the course of past ages, been subjected again and again to very different degrees of heat and cold. These alternations of temperature have probably contributed largely to the production of joints in rocks.

In some countries, as in Saxony, where ma.s.ses of basalt rest on sandstone, the aqueous rock has for the distance of several feet from the point of junction a.s.sumed a columnar structure similar to that of the trap. In like manner some hearthstones, after exposure to the heat of a furnace without being melted, have become prismatic. Certain crystals also acquire by the application of heat a new internal arrangement, so as to break in a new direction, their external form remaining unaltered.

Sir R. Murchison observes, that in referring both joints and slaty cleavage to crystalline action, we are borne out by a well-known a.n.a.logy in which crystallization has in like manner given rise to two distinct kinds of structure in the same body. Thus, for example, in a six-sided prism of quartz, the planes of cleavage are distinct from those of the prism. It is impossible to cleave the crystals parallel to the plane of the prism, just as slaty rocks cannot be cleaved parallel to the joints; but the quartz crystal, like the older schists, may be cleaved _ad infinitum_ in the direction of the cleavage planes.[471-A]

It seems, therefore, that the fissures called joints may have been the result of different causes, as of some modification of crystalline action, or simple contraction during consolidation, or during a change of temperature. And there are cases where joints may have been due to mechanical violence, and the strain exerted on strata during their upheaval, or when they have sunk down below their former level. Professor Phillips has suggested that the previous existence of divisional planes may often have determined, and must greatly have modified, the lines and points of fracture caused in rocks by those forces to which they owe their elevation or dislocations. These lines and points being those of least resistance, cannot fail to have influenced the direction in which the solid ma.s.s would give way on the application of external force.

Professor Phillips has also remarked that in some slaty rocks the form of the outline of fossil sh.e.l.ls and trilobites has been much changed by distortion, which has taken place in a longitudinal, transverse, or oblique direction. This change, he adds, seems to be the result of a "creeping movement" of the particles of the rock along the planes of cleavage, its direction being always uniform over the same tract of country, and its amount in s.p.a.ce being sometimes measurable, and being as much as a quarter or even half an inch. The hard sh.e.l.ls are not affected, but only those which are thin.[471-B] Mr. D. Sharpe, following up the same line of inquiry, came to the conclusion, that the present distorted forms of the sh.e.l.ls in certain British slate rocks may be accounted for by supposing that the rocks in which they are imbedded have undergone compression in a direction perpendicular to the planes of cleavage, and a corresponding expansion in the direction of the dip of the cleavage.[471-C]

Mr. Darwin infers from his observations, that in South America the strike of the cleavage planes is very uniform over wide regions, and that it corresponds with the strike of the planes of foliation in the gneiss and mica-schists of the same parts of Chili, Tierra del Fuego, &c. The explanation which he suggests, is based upon a combination of mechanical and crystalline forces. The planes, he says, of cleavage, and even the foliation of mica-schist and gneiss, may be intimately connected with the planes of different tension to which the area was long subjected, _after_ the main fissures or axis of upheavement had been formed, but _before_ the final consolidation of the ma.s.s and the total cessation of all molecular movement.[472-A]

I have already stated that some extremely fine slates are perfectly parallel to the planes of stratification, as those of the Niesen, for example, near the Lake of Thun, in Switzerland, which contain fucoids, and are no doubt due to successive aqueous deposition. Even where the slates are oblique to the general planes of the strata, it by no means follows as a matter of course that they have been caused by crystalline action, for they may be the result of that diagonal lamination which I have before described (p. 17.). In this case, however, there is usually much irregularity, whereas cleavage planes oblique to the true stratification, which are referred to a crystalline action, are often perfectly symmetrical, and observe a strict geometrical parallelism, even when the strata are contorted, as already described (p. 470.).

Professor Sedgwick, speaking of the planes of slaty cleavage, where they are decidedly distinct from those of sedimentary deposition, declares his opinion that no retreat of parts, no contraction in the dimensions of rocks in pa.s.sing to a solid state, can account for the phenomenon. It must be referred to crystalline or polar forces acting simultaneously, and somewhat uniformly, in given directions, on large ma.s.ses having a h.o.m.ogeneous composition.

Sir John Herschel, in allusion to slaty cleavage, has suggested, "that if rocks have been so heated as to allow a commencement of crystallization; that is to say, if they have been heated to a point at which the particles can begin to move amongst themselves, or at least on their own axes, some general law must then determine the position in which these particles will rest on cooling. Probably that position will have some relation to the direction in which the heat escapes. Now, when all, or a majority of particles of the same nature, have a general tendency to one position, that must of course determine a cleavage plane. Thus we see the infinitesimal crystals of fresh precipitated sulphate of barytes, and some other such bodies, arrange themselves alike in the fluid in which they float; so as, when stirred, all to glance with one light, and give the appearance of silky filaments. Some sorts of soap, in which insoluble margarates[472-B]

exist, exhibit the same phenomenon when mixed with water; and what occurs in our experiments on a minute scale may occur in nature on a great one."[472-C]

FOOTNOTES:

[469-A] Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. iii. p. 480.

[469-B] The Silurian System of Rocks, as developed in Salop, Hereford, &c., p. 245.

[469-C] Ibid., p. 246.

[470-A] Introduction to Geology, chap. iv.

[471-A] Silurian System of Rocks, &c., p. 246.

[471-B] Report, Brit. a.s.s., Cork, 1843, p. 60.

[471-C] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. iii. p. 87. 1847.

[472-A] Geol. Obs. on S. America, 1846, p. 168.

[472-B] Margaric acid is an oleaginous acid, formed from different animal and vegetable fatty substances. A margarate is a compound of this acid with soda, potash, or some other base, and is so named from its pearly l.u.s.tre.

[472-C] Letter to the author, dated Cape of Good Hope, Feb. 20. 1836.

CHAPTER x.x.xVI.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS--_continued_.

Strata near some intrusive ma.s.ses of granite converted into rocks identical with different members of the metamorphic series--Arguments hence derived as to the nature of plutonic action--Time may enable this action to pervade denser ma.s.ses--From what kinds of sedimentary rock each variety of the metamorphic cla.s.s may be derived--Certain objections to the metamorphic theory considered--Lamination of trachyte and obsidian due to motion--Whether some kinds of gneiss have become schistose by a similar action.

It has been seen that geologists have been very generally led to infer, from the phenomena of joints and slaty cleavage, that mountain ma.s.ses, of which the sedimentary origin is unquestionable, have been acted upon simultaneously by vast crystalline forces. That the structure of fossiliferous strata has often been modified by some general cause since their original deposition, and even subsequently to their consolidation and dislocation, is undeniable. These facts prepare us to believe that still greater changes may have been worked out by a greater intensity, or more prolonged development of the same agency, combined, perhaps, with other causes. Now we have seen that, near the immediate contact of granitic veins and volcanic dikes, very extraordinary alterations in rocks have taken place, more especially in the neighbourhood of granite. It will be useful here to add other ill.u.s.trations, showing that a texture undistinguishable from that which characterizes the more crystalline metamorphic formations, has actually been superinduced in strata once fossiliferous.

In the southern extremity of Norway there is a large district, on the west side of the fiord of Christiania, in which granite or syenite protrudes in mountain ma.s.ses through fossiliferous strata, and usually sends veins into them at the point of contact. The stratified rocks, replete with sh.e.l.ls and zoophytes, consist chiefly of shale, limestone, and some sandstone, and all these are invariably altered near the granite for a distance of from 50 to 400 yards. The aluminous shales are hardened and have become flinty.

Sometimes they resemble jasper. Ribboned jasper is produced by the hardening of alternate layers of green and chocolate-coloured schist, each stripe faithfully representing the original lines of stratification. Nearer the granite the schist often contains crystals of hornblende, which are even met with in some places for a distance of several hundred yards from the junction; and this black hornblende is so abundant that eminent geologists, when pa.s.sing through the country, have confounded it with the ancient hornblende-schist, subordinate to the great gneiss formation of Norway. Frequently, between the granite and the hornblende slate, above mentioned, grains of mica and crystalline felspar appear in the schist, so that rocks resembling gneiss and mica-schist are produced. Fossils can rarely be detected in these schists, and they are more completely effaced in proportion to the more crystalline texture of the beds, and their vicinity to the granite. In some places the siliceous matter of the schist becomes a granular quartz; and when hornblende and mica are added, the altered rock loses its stratification, and pa.s.ses into a kind of granite.

The limestone, which at points remote from the granite is of an earthy texture, blue colour, and often abounds in corals, becomes a white granular marble near the granite, sometimes siliceous, the granular structure extending occasionally upwards of 400 yards from the junction; and the corals being for the most part obliterated, though sometimes preserved, even in the white marble. Both the altered limestone and hardened slate contain garnets in many places, also ores of iron, lead, and copper, with some silver. These alterations occur equally, whether the granite invades the strata in a line parallel to the general strike of the fossiliferous beds, or in a line at right angles to their strike, as will be seen by the accompanying ground plan.[474-A]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 512. Altered zone of fossiliferous slate and limestone near granite. Christiania.

_The arrows indicate the dip, and the straight lines the strike, of the beds._]

The indurated and ribboned schists above mentioned bear a strong resemblance to certain shales of the coal found at Russell's Hall, near Dudley, where coal-mines have been on fire for ages. Beds of shale of considerable thickness, lying over the burning coal, have been baked and hardened so as to acquire a flinty fracture, the layers being alternately green and brick-coloured.

The granite of Cornwall, in like manner, sends forth veins into a coa.r.s.e argillaceous-schist, provincially termed killas. This killas is converted into hornblende-schist near the contact with the veins. These appearances are well seen at the junction of the granite and killas, in St. Michael's Mount, a small island nearly 300 feet high, situated in the bay, at a distance of about three miles from Penzance.

The granite of Dartmoor, in Devonshire, says Sir H. De la Beche, has intruded itself into the slate and slaty sandstone called greywacke, twisting and contorting the strata, and sending veins into them. Hence some of the slate rocks have become "micaceous; others more indurated, and with the characters of mica-slate and gneiss; while others again appear converted into a hard-zoned rock strongly impregnated with felspar."[475-A]

We learn from the investigations of M. Dufrenoy, that in the eastern Pyrenees there are mountain ma.s.ses of granite posterior in date to the formations called lias and chalk of that district, and that these fossiliferous rocks are greatly altered in texture, and often charged with iron-ore, in the neighbourhood of the granite. Thus in the environs of St.

Martin, near St. Paul de Fenouillet, the chalky limestone becomes more crystalline and saccharoid as it approaches the granite, and loses all trace of the fossils which it previously contained in abundance. At some points, also, it becomes dolomitic, and filled with small veins of carbonate of iron, and spots of red iron-ore. At Rancie the lias nearest the granite is not only filled with iron-ore, but charged with pyrites, tremolite, garnet, and a new mineral somewhat allied to felspar, called, from the place in the Pyrenees where it occurs, "couzeranite."

Now the alterations above described as superinduced in rocks by volcanic dikes and granite veins, prove incontestably that powers exist in nature capable of transforming fossiliferous into crystalline strata--powers capable of generating in them a new mineral character, similar, nay, often absolutely identical, with that of gneiss, mica-schist, and other stratified members of the hypogene series. The precise nature of these altering causes, which may provisionally be termed plutonic, is in a great degree obscure and doubtful; but their reality is no less clear, and we must suppose the influence of heat to be in some way connected with the trans.m.u.tation, if, for reasons before explained, we concede the igneous origin of granite.

The experiments of Gregory Watt, in fusing rocks in the laboratory, and allowing them to consolidate by slow cooling, prove distinctly that a rock need not be perfectly melted in order that a re-arrangement of its component particles should take place, and a partial crystallization ensue.[475-B] We may easily suppose, therefore, that all traces of sh.e.l.ls and other organic remains may be destroyed; and that new chemical combinations may arise, without the ma.s.s being so fused as that the lines of stratification should be wholly obliterated.

We must not, however, imagine that heat alone, such as may be applied to a stone in the open air, can const.i.tute all that is comprised in plutonic action. We know that volcanos in eruption not only emit fluid lava, but give off steam and other heated gases, which rush out in enormous volume, for days, weeks, or years continuously, and are even disengaged from lava during its consolidation. When the materials of granite, therefore, came in contact with the fossiliferous stratum in the bowels of the earth under great pressure, the contained gases might be unable to escape; yet when brought into contact with rocks, might pa.s.s through their pores with greater facility than water is known to do (p. 35.). These aeriform fluids, such as sulphuretted hydrogen, muriatic acid, and carbonic acid, issue in many places from rents in rocks, which they have discoloured and corroded, softening some and hardening others.

If the rocks are charged with water, they would pa.s.s through more readily; for, according to the experiments of Henry, water, under an hydrostatic pressure of 96 feet, will absorb three times as much carbonic acid gas as it can under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. Although this increased power of absorption would be diminished, in consequence of the higher temperature found to exist as we descend in the earth, yet Professor Bischoff has shown that the heat by no means augments in such a proportion as to counteract the effect of augmented pressure.[476-A] There are other gases, as well as the carbonic acid, which water absorbs, and more rapidly in proportion to the amount of pressure. Now even the most compact rocks may be regarded, before they have been exposed to the air and dried, in the light of sponges filled with water; and it is conceivable that heated gases brought into contact with them, at great depths, may be absorbed readily, and transfused through their pores. Although the gaseous matter first observed would soon be condensed, and part with its heat, yet the continual arrival of fresh supplies from below might, in the course of ages, cause the temperature of the water, and with it that of the containing rock, to be materially raised.

M. Fournet, in his description of the metalliferous gneiss near Clermont, in Auvergne, states that all the minute fissures of the rock are quite saturated with free carbonic acid gas, which rises plentifully from the soil there and in many parts of the surrounding country. The various elements of the gneiss, with the exception of the quartz, are all softened; and new combinations of the acid, with lime, iron, and manganese, are continually in progress.[476-B]

Another ill.u.s.tration of the power of subterranean gases is afforded by the stufas of St. Calogero, situated in the largest of the Lipari Islands.

Here, according to the description published by Hoffmann, horizontal strata of tuff, extending for 4 miles along the coast, and forming cliffs more than 200 feet high, have been discoloured in various places, and strangely altered by the "all-penetrating vapours." Dark clays have become yellow, or often snow-white; or have a.s.sumed a chequered or brecciated appearance, being crossed with ferruginous red stripes. In some places the fumaroles have been found by a.n.a.lysis to consist partly of sublimations of oxide of iron; but it also appears that veins of chalcedony and opal, and others of fibrous gypsum, have resulted from these volcanic exhalations.[476-C]

The reader may also refer to M. Virlet's account of the corrosion of hard, flinty, and jaspideous rocks near Corinth, by the prolonged agency of subterranean gases[477-A]; and to Dr. Daubeny's description of the decomposition of trachytic rocks in the Solfatara, near Naples, by sulphuretted hydrogen and muriatic acid gases.[477-B]

Although in all these instances we can only study the phenomena as exhibited at the surface, it is clear that the gaseous fluids must have made their way through the whole thickness of porous or fissured rocks, which intervene between the subterranean reservoirs of gas and the external air. The extent, therefore, of the earth's crust, which the vapours have permeated and are now permeating, may be thousands of fathoms in thickness, and their heating and modifying influence may be spread throughout the whole of this solid ma.s.s.

We learn from Professor Bischoff that the steam of a hot spring at Aix-la-Chapelle, although its temperature is only from 133 to 167 F., has converted the surface of some blocks of black marble into a doughy ma.s.s. He conceives, therefore, that steam in the bowels of the earth having a temperature equal or even greater than the melting point of lava, and having an elasticity of which even Papin's digester can give but a faint idea, may convert rocks into liquid matter.[477-C]

The above observations are calculated to meet some of the objections which have been urged against the metamorphic theory on the ground of the small power of rocks to conduct heat; for it is well known that rocks, when dry and in the air, differ remarkably from metals in this respect. It has been asked how the changes which extend merely for a few feet from the contact of a dike could have penetrated through mountain ma.s.ses of crystalline strata several miles in thickness. Now it has been stated that the plutonic influence of the syenite of Norway has sometimes altered fossiliferous strata for a distance of a quarter of a mile, both in the direction of their dip and of their strike. (See fig. 512. p. 474.) This is undoubtedly an extreme case; but is it not far more philosophical to suppose that this influence may, under favourable circ.u.mstances, affect denser ma.s.ses, than to invent an entirely new cause to account for effects merely differing in quant.i.ty, and not in kind? The metamorphic theory does not require us to affirm that some contiguous ma.s.s of granite has been the altering power; but merely that an action, existing in the interior of the earth at an unknown depth, whether thermal, electrical, or other, a.n.a.logous to that exerted near intruding ma.s.ses of granite, has, in the course of vast and indefinite periods, and when rising perhaps from a large heated surface, reduced strata thousands of yards thick to a state of semi-fusion, so that on cooling they have become crystalline, like gneiss. Granite may have been another result of the same action in a higher state of intensity, by which a thorough fusion has been produced; and in this manner the pa.s.sage from granite into gneiss may be explained.

Some geologists are of opinion, that the alternate layers of mica and quartz, or mica and felspar, or lime and felspar, are so much more distinct, in certain metamorphic rocks, than the ingredients composing alternate layers in many sedimentary deposits, that the similar particles must be supposed to have exerted a molecular attraction for each other, and to have thus congregated together in layers more distinct in mineral composition than before they were crystallized.

In considering, then, the various data already enumerated, the forms of stratification in metamorphic rocks, their pa.s.sage on the one hand into the fossiliferous, and on the other into the plutonic formations, and the conversions which can be ascertained to have occurred in the vicinity of granite, we may conclude that gneiss and mica-schist may be nothing more than altered micaceous and argillaceous sandstones that granular quartz may have been derived from siliceous sandstone, and compact quartz from the same materials. Clay-slate may be altered shale, and granular marble may have originated in the form of ordinary limestone, replete with sh.e.l.ls and corals, which have since been obliterated; and, lastly, calcareous sands and marls may have been changed into impure crystalline limestones.

"Hornblende-schist," says Dr. MacCulloch, "may at first have been mere clay; for clay or shale is found altered by trap into Lydian stone, a substance differing from hornblende-schist almost solely in compactness and uniformity of texture."[478-A] "In Shetland," remarks the same author, "argillaceous-schist (or clay-slate), when in contact with granite, is sometimes converted into hornblende-schist, the schist becoming first siliceous, and ultimately, at the contact, hornblende-schist."[478-B]

The anthracite and plumbago a.s.sociated with hypogene rocks may have been coal; for not only is coal converted into anthracite in the vicinity of some trap dikes, but we have seen that a like change has taken place generally even far from the contact of igneous rocks, in the disturbed region of the Appalachians.[478-C] At Worcester, in the state of Ma.s.sachusetts, 45 miles due west of Boston, a bed of plumbago and impure anthracite occurs, interstratified with mica-schist. It is about 2 feet in thickness, and has been made use of both as fuel, and in the manufacture of lead pencils. At the distance of 30 miles from the plumbago, there occurs, on the borders of Rhode Island, an impure anthracite in slates, containing impressions of coal-plants of the genera _Pecopteris_, _Neuropteris_, _Calamites_, &c. This anthracite is intermediate in character between that of Pennsylvania and the plumbago of Worcester, in which last the gaseous or volatile matter (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) is to the carbon only in the proportion of 3 per cent. After traversing the country in various directions, I came to the conclusion that the carboniferous shales or slates with anthracite and plants, which in Rhode Island often pa.s.s into mica-schist, have at Worcester a.s.sumed a perfectly crystalline and metamorphic texture; the anthracite having been nearly trans.m.u.ted into that state of pure carbon which is called plumbago or graphite.[479-A]