Hence there are four great cla.s.ses of rocks considered in reference to their origin,--the aqueous, the volcanic, the plutonic, and the metamorphic. In the course of this work it will be shown, that portions of each of these four distinct cla.s.ses have originated at many successive periods. They have all been produced contemporaneously, and may even now be in the progress of formation. It is not true, as was formerly supposed, that all granites, together with the crystalline or metamorphic strata, were first formed, and therefore ent.i.tled to be called "primitive," and that the aqueous and volcanic rocks were afterwards superimposed, and should, therefore, rank as secondary in the order of time. This idea was adopted in the infancy of the science, when all formations, whether stratified or unstratified, earthy or crystalline, with or without fossils, were alike regarded as of aqueous origin. At that period it was naturally argued, that the foundation must be older than the superstructure; but it was afterwards discovered, that this opinion was by no means in every instance a legitimate deduction from facts; for the inferior parts of the earth's crust have often been modified, and even entirely changed, by the influence of volcanic and other subterranean causes, while superimposed formations have not been in the slightest degree altered. In other words, the destroying and renovating processes have given birth to new rocks below, while those above, whether crystalline or fossiliferous, have remained in their ancient condition. Even in cities, such as Venice and Amsterdam, it cannot be laid down as universally true, that the upper parts of each edifice, whether of brick or marble, are more modern than the foundations on which they rest, for these often consist of wooden piles, which may have rotted and been replaced one after the other, without the least injury to the buildings above; meanwhile, these may have required scarcely any repair, and may have been constantly inhabited. So it is with the habitable surface of our globe, in its relation to large ma.s.ses of rock immediately below: it may continue the same for ages, while subjacent materials, at a great depth, are pa.s.sing from a solid to a fluid state, and then reconsolidating, so as to acquire a new texture.

As all the crystalline rocks may, in some respects, be viewed as belonging to one great family, whether they be stratified or unstratified, plutonic or metamorphic, it will often be convenient to speak of them by one common name. It being now ascertained, as above stated, that they are of very different ages, sometimes newer than the strata called secondary, the term primary, which was formerly used for the whole, must be abandoned, as it would imply a manifest contradiction. It is indispensable, therefore, to find a new name, one which must not be of chronological import, and must express, on the one hand, some peculiarity equally attributable to granite and gneiss (to the plutonic as well as the _altered_ rocks), and, on the other, must have reference to characters in which those rocks differ, both from the volcanic and from the _unaltered_ sedimentary strata. I proposed in the Principles of Geology (first edition, vol. iii.), the term "hypogene" for this purpose, derived from +hypo+, _under_, and +ginomai+, _to be_, or _to be born_; a word implying the theory that granite, gneiss, and the other crystalline formations are alike _nether-formed_ rocks, or rocks which have not a.s.sumed their present form and structure at the surface. This occurs in the lowest place in the order of superposition.

Even in regions such as the Alps, where some ma.s.ses of granite and gneiss can be shown to be of comparatively modern date, belonging, for example, to the period hereafter to be described as tertiary, they are still _underlying_ rocks. They never repose on the volcanic or trappean formations, nor on strata containing organic remains. They are _hypogene_, as "being under" all the rest.

From what has now been said, the reader will understand that each of the four great cla.s.ses of rocks may be studied under two distinct points of view; first, they may be studied simply as mineral ma.s.ses deriving their origin from particular causes, and having a certain composition, form, and position in the earth's crust, or other characters both positive and negative, such as the presence or absence of organic remains. In the second place, the rocks of each cla.s.s may be viewed as a grand chronological series of monuments, attesting a succession of events in the former history of the globe and its living inhabitants.

I shall accordingly proceed to treat of each family of rocks; first, in reference to those characters which are not chronological, and then in particular relation to the several periods when they were formed.

FOOTNOTES:

[3-A] See Principles of Geology, by the Author, Index, "Nile,"

"Rivers," &c.

[4-A] See p. 18.

[4-B] See Geograph. Journ. vol. iv. p. 64.

CHAPTER II.

AQUEOUS ROCKS--THEIR COMPOSITION AND FORMS OF STRATIFICATION.

Mineral composition of strata--Arenaceous rocks--Argillaceous--Calcareous--Gypsum--Forms of stratification--Original horizontality--Thinning out--Diagonal arrangement--Ripple mark.

In pursuance of the arrangement explained in the last chapter, we shall begin by examining the aqueous or sedimentary rocks, which are for the most part distinctly stratified, and contain fossils. We may first study them with reference to their mineral composition, external appearance, position, mode of origin, organic contents, and other characters which belong to them as aqueous formations, independently of their age, and we may afterwards consider them chronologically or with reference to the successive geological periods when they originated.

I have already given an outline of the data which led to the belief that the stratified and fossiliferous rocks were originally deposited under water; but, before entering into a more detailed investigation, it will be desirable to say something of the ordinary materials of which such strata are composed. These may be said to belong princ.i.p.ally to three divisions, the arenaceous, the argillaceous, and the calcareous, which are formed respectively of sand, clay, and carbonate of lime. Of these, the arenaceous, or sandy ma.s.ses, are chiefly made up of siliceous or flinty grains; the argillaceous, or clayey, of a mixture of siliceous matter, with a certain proportion, about a fourth in weight, of aluminous earth; and, lastly, the calcareous rocks or limestones consist of carbonic acid and lime.

_Arenaceous or siliceous rocks._--To speak first of the sandy division: beds of loose sand are frequently met with, of which the grains consist entirely of silex, which term comprehends all purely siliceous minerals, as quartz and common flint. Quartz is silex in its purest form; flint usually contains some admixture of alumine and oxide of iron. The siliceous grains in sand are usually rounded, as if by the action of running water.

Sandstone is an aggregate of such grains, which often cohere together without any visible cement, but more commonly are bound together by a slight quant.i.ty of siliceous or calcareous matter, or by iron or clay.

Pure siliceous rocks may be known by not effervescing when a drop of nitric, sulphuric, or other acid is applied to them, or by the grains not being readily scratched or broken by ordinary pressure. In nature there is every intermediate gradation, from perfectly loose sand, to the hardest sandstone. In _micaceous sandstones_ mica is very abundant; and the thin silvery plates into which that mineral divides, are often arranged in layers parallel to the planes of stratification, giving a slaty or laminated texture to the rock.

When sandstone is coa.r.s.e-grained, it is usually called _grit_. If the grains are rounded, and large enough to be called pebbles, it becomes a _conglomerate_, or _pudding-stone_, which may consist of pieces of one or of many different kinds of rock. A conglomerate, therefore, is simply gravel bound together by a cement.

_Argillaceous rocks._--Clay, strictly speaking, is a mixture of silex or flint with a large proportion, usually about one fourth, of alumine, or argil; but, in common language, any earth which possesses sufficient ductility, when kneaded up with water, to be fashioned like paste by the hand, or by the potter's lathe, is called a _clay_; and such clays vary greatly in their composition, and are, in general, nothing more than mud derived from the decomposition or wearing down of various rocks. The purest clay found in nature is porcelain clay, or kaolin, which results from the decomposition of a rock composed of felspar and quartz, and it is almost always mixed with quartz.[11-A] _Shale_ has also the property, like clay, of becoming plastic in water: it is a more solid form of clay, or argillaceous matter, condensed by pressure. It usually divides into irregular laminae.

One general character of all argillaceous rocks is to give out a peculiar, earthy odour when breathed upon, which is a test of the presence of alumine, although it does not belong to pure alumine, but, apparently, to the combination of that substance with oxide of iron.[11-B]

_Calcareous rocks._--This division comprehends those rocks which, like chalk, are composed chiefly of lime and carbonic acid. Sh.e.l.ls and corals are also formed of the same elements, with the addition of animal matter.

To obtain pure lime it is necessary to calcine these calcareous substances, that is to say, to expose them to heat of sufficient intensity to drive off the carbonic acid, and other volatile matter, without vitrifying or melting the lime itself. White chalk is often pure carbonate of lime; and this rock, although usually in a soft and earthy state, is sometimes sufficiently solid to be used for building, and even pa.s.ses into a _compact_ stone, or a stone of which the separate parts are so minute as not to be distinguishable from each other by the naked eye.

Many limestones are made up entirely of minute fragments of sh.e.l.ls and coral, or of calcareous sand cemented together. These last might be called "calcareous sandstones;" but that term is more properly applied to a rock in which the grains are partly calcareous and partly siliceous, or to quartzose sandstones, having a cement of carbonate of lime.

The variety of limestone called "oolite" is composed of numerous small egg-like grains, resembling the roe of a fish, each of which has usually a small fragment of sand as a nucleus, around which concentric layers of calcareous matter have acc.u.mulated.

Any limestone which is sufficiently hard to take a fine polish is called _marble_. Many of these are fossiliferous; but statuary marble, which is also called saccharine limestone, as having a texture resembling that of loaf-sugar, is devoid of fossils, and is in many cases a member of the metamorphic series.

_Siliceous limestone_ is an intimate mixture of carbonate of lime and flint, and is harder in proportion as the flinty matter predominates.

The presence of carbonate of lime in a rock may be ascertained by applying to the surface a small drop of diluted sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acids, or strong vinegar; for the lime, having a greater chemical affinity for any one of these acids than for the carbonic, unites immediately with them to form new compounds, thereby becoming a sulphate, nitrate, or muriate of lime. The carbonic acid, when thus liberated from its union with the lime, escapes in a gaseous form, and froths up or effervesces as it makes its way in small bubbles through the drop of liquid. This effervescence is brisk or feeble in proportion as the limestone is pure or impure, or, in other words, according to the quant.i.ty of foreign matter mixed with the carbonate of lime. Without the aid of this test, the most experienced eye cannot always detect the presence of carbonate of lime in rocks.

The above-mentioned three cla.s.ses of rocks, the siliceous, argillaceous, and calcareous, pa.s.s continually into each other, and rarely occur in a perfectly separate and pure form. Thus it is an exception to the general rule to meet with a limestone as pure as ordinary white chalk, or with clay as aluminous as that used in Cornwall for porcelain, or with sand so entirely composed of siliceous grains as the white sand of Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, or sandstone so pure as the grit of Fontainebleau, used for pavement in France. More commonly we find sand and clay, or clay and marl, intermixed in the same ma.s.s. When the sand and clay are each in considerable quant.i.ty, the mixture is called _loam_. If there is much calcareous matter in clay it is called _marl_; but this term has unfortunately been used so vaguely, as often to be very ambiguous. It has been applied to substances in which there is no lime; as, to that red loam usually called red marl in certain parts of England. Agriculturists were in the habit of calling any soil a marl, which, like true marl, fell to pieces readily on exposure to the air. Hence arose the confusion of using this name for soils which, consisting of loam, were easily worked by the plough, though devoid of lime.

_Marl slate_ bears the same relation to marl which shale bears to clay, being a calcareous shale. It is very abundant in some countries, as in the Swiss Alps. Argillaceous or marly limestone is also of common occurrence.

There are few other kinds of rock which enter so largely into the composition of sedimentary strata as to make it necessary to dwell here on their characters. I may, however, mention two others,--magnesian limestone or dolomite, and gypsum. _Magnesian limestone_ is composed of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia; the proportion of the latter amounting in some cases to nearly one half. It effervesces much more slowly and feebly with acids than common limestone. In England this rock is generally of a yellowish colour; but it varies greatly in mineralogical character, pa.s.sing from an earthy state to a white compact stone of great hardness.

_Dolomite_, so common in many parts of Germany and France, is also a variety of magnesian limestone, usually of a granular texture.

_Gypsum._--Gypsum is a rock composed of sulphuric acid, lime, and water. It is usually a soft whitish-yellow rock, with a texture resembling that of loaf-sugar, but sometimes it is entirely composed of lenticular crystals.

It is insoluble in acids, and does not effervesce like chalk and dolomite, because it does not contain carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, the lime being already combined with sulphuric acid, for which it has a stronger affinity than for any other. Anhydrous gypsum is a rare variety, into which water does not enter as a component part. Gypseous marl is a mixture of gypsum and marl. Alabaster is a granular and compact variety of gypsum found in ma.s.ses large enough to be used in sculpture and architecture. It is sometimes a pure snow-white substance, as that of Volterra in Tuscany, well known as being carved for works of art in Florence and Leghorn. It is a softer stone than marble, and more easily wrought.

_Forms of stratification._--A series of strata sometimes consists of one of the above rocks, sometimes of two or more in alternating beds. Thus, in the coal districts of England, for example, we often pa.s.s through several beds of sandstone, some of finer, others of coa.r.s.er grain, some white, others of a dark colour, and below these, layers of shale and sandstone or beds of shale, divisible into leaf-like laminae, and containing beautiful impressions of plants. Then again we meet with beds of pure and impure coal, alternating with shales and sandstones, and underneath the whole, perhaps, are calcareous strata, or beds of limestone, filled with corals and marine sh.e.l.ls, each bed distinguishable from another by certain fossils, or by the abundance of particular species of sh.e.l.ls or zoophytes.

This alternation of different kinds of rock produces the most distinct stratification; and we often find beds of limestone and marl, conglomerate and sandstone, sand and clay, recurring again and again, in nearly regular order, throughout a series of many hundred strata. The causes which may produce these phenomena are various, and have been fully discussed in my treatise on the modern changes of the earth's surface.[14-A] It is there seen that rivers flowing into lakes and seas are charged with sediment, varying in quant.i.ty, composition, colour, and grain according to the seasons; the waters are sometimes flooded and rapid, at other periods low and feeble; different tributaries, also, draining peculiar countries and soils, and therefore charged with peculiar sediment, are swollen at distinct periods. It was also shown that the waves of the sea and currents undermine the cliffs during wintry storms, and sweep away the materials into the deep, after which a season of tranquillity succeeds, when nothing but the finest mud is spread by the movements of the ocean over the same submarine area.

It is not the object of the present work to give a description of these operations, repeated as they are, year after year, and century after century; but I may suggest an explanation of the manner in which some micaceous sandstones have originated, those in which we see innumerable thin layers of mica dividing layers of fine quartzose sand. I observed the same arrangement of materials in recent mud deposited in the estuary of La Roche St. Bernard in Brittany, at the mouth of the Loire. The surrounding rocks are of gneiss, which, by its waste, supplies the mud: when this dries at low water, it is found to consist of brown laminated clay, divided by thin seams of mica. The separation of the mica in this case, or in that of micaceous sandstones, may be thus understood. If we take a handful of quartzose sand, mixed with mica, and throw it into a clear running stream, we see the materials immediately sorted by the water, the grains of quartz falling almost directly to the bottom, while the plates of mica take a much longer time to reach the bottom, and are carried farther down the stream.

At the first instant the water is turbid, but immediately after the flat surfaces of the plates of mica are seen alone reflecting a silvery light, as they descend slowly, to form a distinct micaceous lamina. The mica is the heavier mineral of the two; but it remains longer suspended, owing to its great extent of surface. It is easy, therefore, to perceive that where such mud is acted upon by a river or tidal current, the thin plates of mica will be carried farther, and not deposited in the same places as the grains of quartz; and since the force and velocity of the stream varies from time to time, layers of mica or of sand will be thrown down successively on the same area.

_Original horizontality._--It has generally been said that the upper and under surfaces of strata, or the planes of stratification, as they are termed, are parallel. Although this is not strictly true, they make an approach to parallelism, for the same reason that sediment is usually deposited at first in nearly horizontal layers. The reason of this arrangement can by no means be attributed to an original evenness or horizontality in the bed of the sea; for it is ascertained that in those places where no matter has been recently deposited, the bottom of the ocean is often as uneven as that of the dry land, having in like manner its hills, valleys, and ravines. Yet if the sea should sink, or the water be removed near the mouth of a large river where a delta has been forming, we should see extensive plains of mud and sand laid dry, which, to the eye, would appear perfectly level, although, in reality, they would slope gently from the land towards the sea.

This tendency in newly-formed strata to a.s.sume a horizontal position arises princ.i.p.ally from the motion of the water, which forces along particles of sand or mud at the bottom, and causes them to settle in hollows or depressions, where they are less exposed to the force of a current than when they are resting on elevated points. The velocity of the current and the motion of the superficial waves diminish from the surface downwards, and are least in those depressions where the water is deepest.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1. Cross section.]

A good ill.u.s.tration of the principle here alluded to may be sometimes seen in the neighbourhood of a volcano, when a section, whether natural or artificial, has laid open to view a succession of various-coloured layers of sand and ashes, which have fallen in showers upon uneven ground. Thus let A B (fig. 1.) be two ridges, with an intervening valley. These original inequalities of the surface have been gradually effaced by beds of sand and ashes _c_, _d_, _e_, the surface at e being quite level. It will be seen that although the materials of the first layers have accommodated themselves in a great degree to the shape of the ground A B, yet each bed is thickest at the bottom. At first a great many particles would be carried by their own gravity down the steep sides of A and B, and others would afterwards be blown by the wind as they fell off the ridges, and would settle in the hollow, which would thus become more and more effaced as the strata acc.u.mulated from _c_ to _e_. This levelling operation may perhaps be rendered more clear to the student by supposing a number of parallel trenches to be dug in a plain of moving sand, like the African desert, in which case the wind would soon cause all signs of these trenches to disappear, and the surface would be as uniform as before. Now, water in motion can exert this levelling power on similar materials more easily than air, for almost all stones lose in water more than a third of the weight which they have in air, the specific gravity of rocks being in general as 2-1/2 when compared to that of water, which is estimated at 1.

But the buoyancy of sand or mud would be still greater in the sea, as the density of salt water exceeds that of fresh.

Yet, however uniform and horizontal may be the surface of new deposits in general, there are still many disturbing causes, such as eddies in the water, and currents moving first in one and then in another direction, which frequently cause irregularities. We may sometimes follow a bed of limestone, shale, or sandstone, for a distance of many hundred yards continuously; but we generally find at length that each individual stratum thins out, and allows the beds which were previously above and below it to meet. If the materials are coa.r.s.e, as in grits and conglomerates, the same beds can rarely be traced many yards without varying in size, and often coming to an end abruptly. (See fig. 2.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2. Section of strata of sandstone, grit, and conglomerate.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3. Section of sand at Sandy Hill, near Biggleswade, Bedfordshire. Height 20 feet. (Greensand formation.)]

_Diagonal or Cross Stratification._--There is also another phenomenon of frequent occurrence. We find a series of larger strata, each of which is composed of a number of minor layers placed obliquely to the general planes of stratification. To this diagonal arrangement the name of "false or cross stratification" has been given. Thus in the annexed section (fig. 3.) we see seven or eight large beds of loose sand, yellow and brown, and the lines _a_, _b_, _c_, mark some of the princ.i.p.al planes of stratification, which are nearly horizontal. But the greater part of the subordinate laminae do not conform to these planes, but have often a steep slope, the inclination being sometimes towards opposite points of the compa.s.s. When the sand is loose and incoherent, as in the case here represented, the deviation from parallelism of the slanting laminae cannot possibly be accounted for by any re-arrangement of the particles acquired during the consolidation of the rock. In what manner then can such irregularities be due to original deposition? We must suppose that at the bottom of the sea, as well as in the beds of rivers, the motions of waves, currents, and eddies often cause mud, sand, and gravel to be thrown down in heaps on particular spots, instead of being spread out uniformly over a wide area.

Sometimes, when banks are thus formed, currents may cut pa.s.sages through them, just as a river forms its bed. Suppose the bank A (fig. 4.) to be thus formed with a steep sloping side, and the water being in a tranquil state, the layer of sediment No. 1. is thrown down upon it, conforming nearly to its surface. Afterwards the other layers, 2, 3, 4, may be deposited in succession, so that the bank B C D is formed. If the current then increases in velocity, it may cut away the upper portion of this ma.s.s down to the dotted line _e_ (fig. 4.), and deposit the materials thus removed farther on, so as to form the layers 5, 6, 7, 8. We have now the bank B C D E (fig. 5.), of which the surface is almost level, and on which the nearly horizontal layers, 9, 10, 11, may then acc.u.mulate. It was shown in fig. 3. that the diagonal layers of successive strata may sometimes have an opposite slope. This is well seen in some cliffs of loose sand on the Suffolk coast. A portion of one of these is represented in fig. 6., where the layers, of which there are about six in the thickness of an inch, are composed of quartzose grains. This arrangement may have been due to the altered direction of the tides and currents in the same place.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4. Cross section.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5. Cross section.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 6. Cliff between Mismer and Dunwich.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 7. Section from Monte Calvo to the sea by the valley of Magnan, near Nice.