[Sidenote: Gervinus]

[Sidenote: Richard Wagner]

[Sidenote: Lenau]

[Sidenote: Lenau's pessimism]

The profound disappointment of the German patriots at the downfall of their political ideals found its counterpart in German letters and music. Georg Gottfried Gervinus, the historian, who had taken so active a part in the attempted reorganization of Germany, turned from history to purely literary studies. It was then that he wrote his celebrated "Study of Shakespeare."

Richard Wagner, who had escaped arrest only by fleeing from Dresden, gave up active composition to write pamphlets and essays, and published his remarkable essay on "The Revolution and the Fine Arts." In the meanwhile, Franz Liszt at Weimar brought out Wagner's new operas "Lohengrin" and "Tannhauser." Nicolas Lenau, the most melodious of the German lyric poets after Heine, died insane. Lenau, whose true name was Niembsch von Strehlenau, was a Hungarian by birth. He joined the group of German poets among whom were Uhland, Gustav Schwab and Count Alexander von Wurtemberg, whose literary aspirations were ridiculed by Heine as "la Romantique defroquee." Stimulated by his fellow poet Chamisso's voyage to Bering Strait, Lenau sought new inspiration in America. On his return he wrote a number of poems on America, which were published under the t.i.tle of "Atlantica." In later years Lenau's verses, like those of Leopardi in Italy, became ever more melancholy, owing partly to inherited tendencies.

In the early forties the poet's pessimism turned into absolute melancholia.

[Sidenote: Uhland]

[Sidenote: Heyse]

After the death of Lenau the mantle of German poetry fell upon Uhland. One of the younger poets, Paul Heyse, at the same time made his first appearance with the poetic drama "Francesca da Rimini."

[Sidenote: Babism in Persia]

In this year, Mirza Ali Mohamad, the great founder of the new Bab religion in Persia, with his disciples Aka Mohamad Ali and Sayyid Husayn of Yezd, suffered martyrdom. Sayyid Husayn recanted under torture, but the Bab and Aka went firmly to the place of execution. Condemned to be shot, the Bab escaped death by an apparent miracle. The bullets only cut the cords that held him bound. He was afterward slain by a soldier. His body was recovered by his disciples. Thus, in the words of Denison Ross, the Persian scholar, "died the great Prophet-Martyr of the Nineteenth Century, at the age of twenty-seven, having during a period of six brief years, of which three were spent in prison, attracted to his person and won for his faith thousands of devoted men and women throughout Persia, and having laid the foundation to a new religion destined to become a formidable rival to Islam." Further persecution of the Babis during this same year did much to forward the new religion.

1851

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's measures]

President Louis Napoleon's growing mastery of France was revealed early in the year. On January 3, as the result of his restrictions of the liberty of the press, the Ministry had to resign. The President deprived General Changarnier, a p.r.o.nounced Republican, of the command of the Paris garrison, and dissolved the a.s.sembly, which might have objected to these measures.

[Sidenote: Death of Spontini]

[Sidenote: Spontini's career]

Gasparo Spontini, the celebrated Italian composer, died on January 24, at his birthplace in Ancona province. Born in 1774, Spontini was intended for the priesthood, but while still a lad ran away and took up music. A sympathetic uncle sent him to the musical conservatory at Naples, where he studied under Sala Tritto. Spontini began his career as a dramatic composer at the opening of the century while acting as orchestral conductor at Palermo. In 1800 he brought out three operas, and wrote others for Rome and Venice, so that by the time he went to Paris in 1803 he had sixteen operas to his credit. His study of Mozart's music served to bring about a complete change in his style. Thus his one-act opera "Milton," dedicated to Empress Josephine, may be regarded as the first of his truly original works.

Empress Josephine appointed him her chamber composer, and secured a hearing for his new opera "The Vestal," produced at the Grand Opera. Napoleon awarded to him the prize for the best dramatic work of that year. In 1810, Spontini became the director of the Italian opera, and there staged Mozart's "Don Giovanni." Dismissed in 1812, on charges of financial irregularity, he was reappointed as court composer by Louis XVIII. His stage pieces in glorification of the Restoration only achieved a _succes d'estime_. He was glad to accept an appointment to Berlin as court composer for Frederick William III. There he brought out "Lalla Rookh," "Alcidor,"

and "Agnes Hohenstauffen," none of which found currency in other cities.

His overweening conduct gradually made his position at Berlin untenable. He was finally driven out by the hostile demonstrations of his audiences, and retired, in 1841, a broken man. After a few years spent in Paris he returned to Italy, where the Pope created him a count. Spontini returned to his birthplace of Magolati village only to die.

[Sidenote: Prussian events]

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein again]

[Sidenote: Metternich returns]

[Sidenote: Bismarck]

[Sidenote: The Dreibund]

[Sidenote: Austrian-Turkish agreement]

In Germany, King William IV. at Berlin celebrated the 150th anniversary of the Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick the Great was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At the same time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the military occupation of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria. The Austrian troops, who came to put a definite stop to hostilities in those provinces, marched into Schleswig-Holstein over a pontoon bridge laid by the retreating columns of the Prussians. As a concession to outraged German feeling, representatives from Schleswig-Holstein were to be readmitted to the Diet of the Germanic Confederation. This superannuated Diet met again at Frankfort as in the days of the Holy Alliance. Before this a conference of Ministers had been held at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsikell, while Prince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backing of Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of the old order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich made his reappearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. On May 30, the Confederate Diet met again at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as a delegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmutz to renew the former alliance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. The Prussian Const.i.tution was modified. The Emperor of Austria began to undo the reforms granted by the Liberal Const.i.tution of 1849. On August 20, he arrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, in which he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no other political authority than the throne," while the Reichsrath was to be merely "considered as the council of the throne." Before this the Austrian and Turkish Governments had come to a settlement respecting Hungarian and Polish refugees in Turkey. With the exception of Kossuth and seven others of the foremost leaders of the Hungarian revolution, a so-called amnesty was extended to all refugees, provided they did not set foot in Hungary.

About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turkish army was sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on the frontier. Many of the exiled Hungarians betook themselves to America.

Kossuth first went to England. A magnificent reception awaited him there.

[Sidenote: Palmerston rebuked]

[Sidenote: Boers lose Orange Colony]

Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, in the meanwhile had compromised himself with his colleagues in the Cabinet by his independent threats of interference in regard to the Hungarian refugees in Turkey.

Queen Victoria sent a letter to Prime Minister Russell containing these significant words: "The Queen expects to be kept informed by Lord Palmerston of what pa.s.ses between him and the foreign Ministers, before important decisions are taken based upon that intercourse; to receive the foreign despatches in good time; and to have the drafts for her approval sent to her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their contents before they be sent off." Lord Palmerston replied: "I have taken a copy of this memorandum of the Queen, and will not fail to attend to the directions which it contains." Some of the most troublesome foreign complications, as often before, first came up for settlement in the Colonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smith defeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces were dispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and the annexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished.

[Sidenote: Second Burmese war]

[Sidenote: Fall of Rangoon]

In India, war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the trouble started with complaints of the British merchants at Rangoon calling for the protection of their country. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert to Rangoon on the "Fox." Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese king lying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of ten thousand rupees as compensation for the injured merchants. In reply the Burmese opened fire on the "Fox." Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state of blockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6,000 men to Rangoon under General G.o.dwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. The three terraces of the great PaG.o.da there were carried by storm, and the British flag hoisted over the golden dome of the sacred PaG.o.da. The capture of Rangoon was followed by that of Ba.s.sie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. The whole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire.

[Sidenote: Gold found in Australia]

In Australia great excitement was created by the discovery of gold in various places. As early as February, gold was found in New South Wales by returned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushed into that province. In July, a squatter on Meroo Creek found a ma.s.s of virgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. Thereupon the famous gold fields of Ballarat were opened in Victoria. In October, gold discoveries were made near Melbourne surpa.s.sing all others. As a result of the great tide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province separated itself from New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria.

[Sidenote: Crystal Palace show]

In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in the so-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from far and wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sang at the opening:

Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet, In this wide hall with earth's invention stored, And praise the invisible universal Lord, Who lets once more in peace the nations meet, Where Science, Art and Labor have outpoured Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet.

The Exposition was the most ambitious affair of the kind held so far. The building, which covered an area of nineteen acres, cost about 180,000. The total receipts of the Exposition were more than a half million pounds. At one time it was calculated nearly a hundred thousand visitors were a.s.sembled under its roof. The difficult problem how to place the exhibits of various countries was settled by awarding the choice places in an arrangement according to Mercator's projection of the map of the world.

Even then Spain refused to be represented at the Exposition unless she were provided with an entrance distinct from that of Portugal.

[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]

Portugal was scarcely in a condition to share in any exhibition of industrial progress. Another outbreak of the persistent conflict between the Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection in Oporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29, he arrived at Oporto. The movement a.s.sumed such threatening proportions that Queen Maria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made Saldanha Prime Minister.

[Sidenote: South American convulsions]

In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, was maintained. On October 2, General Urquiza of the Argentine Republic, having joined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe to capitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment of Montevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew General Rosas at Montevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about the same time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than four hundred houses at Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. In a sharp engagement between the government troops and the insurgents Ourriola with three hundred of his followers was killed. The insurrection was prolonged by General Jose Maria de la Cruz. Between four and five thousand men were killed in the desultory engagements that followed. At last the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in the battle of Longamilla.

[Sidenote: Extension of railways]

In China, the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam, the unusual spectacle was beheld of the simultaneous enthronement of two kings as rulers of that country. The progress of modern civilization was attested by the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo and Alexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of railroad was laid over the long stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow, and work was begun on others no less ambitious.

[Sidenote: American filibusters pardoned]

[Sidenote: American yacht victory]

[Sidenote: Kossuth in America]