A Guide for the Study of Animals.

by Worrallo Whitney and Frederic Lucas and Harold Shinn and Mabel Smallwood.

PREFACE

The following guide to the study of animals is intended for pupils in secondary schools. It was prepared by the authors at the request of the Biology Round Table, an a.s.sociation composed of the teachers of Biology in the Chicago High Schools, to whom the authors wish to take this opportunity of expressing their appreciation of the many helpful suggestions and criticisms of the ma.n.u.script.

The time has pa.s.sed when a high school course in zoology consists simply of a somewhat simplified edition of a similar course in college. All teachers now recognize that the motivization of any course should be its adaptability to the needs of the student, and that zoology must be taught from the standpoint of the student rather than that of the subject. In preparing this guide, the authors have tried to keep these points in mind.

The matter of presentation, the order of topics, and the choice of material has been much discussed, but the trend of opinion has finally set in toward an ecological rather than a type study of animals; that there should be in the case of young students a brief study of rather a large number of animals to bring out some general biological law, rather than an exhaustive study of a very few types.

It is further recognized that the use of a reference library is absolutely essential in connection with and to supplement the laboratory work, as there are some topics beyond the ability of the young student for original investigation as well as impossible in the amount of time usually allotted to the subject in our crowded curricula. Of great importance is the economic side of zoology, especially its bearing upon the applied sciences of medicine, sanitation, household science, and agriculture, and this phase has received special attention in this guide.

The desirability of field work has always been recognized, but the special conditions under which schools must work are so variable as to make any set directions for field work of little value, and so they have in most cases been omitted in this work. Each teacher can easily give such special direction for collecting material and study in the field as the locality of the school and the time available for it shall determine.

Since zoology will probably be the pupil's first laboratory science, the authors have preceded the more formal portion of the manual with a series of short exercises on familiar and easily obtained animals in order to introduce the pupil to the laboratory method and to stimulate his interest, training him at the outset to be constantly on the outlook for specimens and to show him how much may be learned from common things right around him, if he will only use his eyes. We have also begun the more formal portion of the guide with insects, since in the fall they are easily collected and may be studied alive.

They ill.u.s.trate, moreover, the principles of cla.s.sification and method of using keys and other means of finding out the names of animals. This would seem to be pedagogically sound, for some recent experiments with pupils show that the first question that comes into a child's mind upon seeing a new or strange specimen is "What is it?"

A larger portion of the guide is given to the chordates than is usually the case. The authors also believe that this is correct and in accord with the natural interest of the pupil. It will serve to connect his zoology more closely with his daily experiences.

There is material enough provided to allow the teacher a chance to select that best adapted to his purposes or conditions as well as to provide for those schools that give more than one year to zoology.

A GUIDE FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMALS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES OF LIVING ANIMALS

In the following brief exercises the primary purpose is to arouse an active, attentive interest on the part of the pupil in various forms of animal life which may be at hand, reminding him of what and how various creatures eat, how they breathe, how they get ideas of the world, how they get about, and perhaps how they succeed where others fail. Of secondary importance is the introduction of laboratory methods by easy stages. The pupil should feel that his natural curiosity is only being directed to definite ends and that he is free to investigate in his own way.

The types here given are only a few of the many to be found in the early fall, and these exercises in several cases may be used for other forms than those definitely mentioned. There should be a great deal of promiscuous collecting by the cla.s.s, and in the ma.s.s of material gathered the following types will probably be fairly abundant.

THE LIVING FLY

_Materials._

Living flies in cages and individual specimens in small wide-mouth vials with cotton stoppers for the admission of air. Sugar crystals may be used for feeding. Simple lenses.

_Observations._

Notice the division of the body into three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The six legs, the large wings, and the small feelers may be easily found, as are the large eyes, the extensible mouth, and beneath the larger wings the small undeveloped ones looking like tiny k.n.o.bs.

1. State the general color of your specimen and give any special markings on its body.

2. Is the body smooth or has it a covering of any kind? Do you regard the fly as a cleanly animal? Why?

3. Under what conditions does the fly use its legs? its wings? What enables it to walk upside down? What use can you a.s.sign to the small wings?

4. Judging by the relative size of the feelers and the eyes, do you think the fly relies more upon its sight or its feeling? Since the eyes can probably see you any place where you see them, determine through how much of a circle the fly can see.

5. How does the fly eat? Does it eat solid or liquid food?

6. Where is the extensible mouth (_proboscis_) kept when not in use?

What is the fly doing when "washing its face"?

7. From your own observation in the barn and the alley what do you know about the fly's cleanliness in choosing its food? How would it affect articles in the pantry?

8. From the foregoing statements show how flies may be a serious factor in dealing with disease.

9. What means may be employed as protection against adult flies?

against their breeding places and "maggots"?

_Suggested drawing._

a. The entire fly, seen from above, 4.

THE LIVING MAGGOT

_Materials._

Living specimens in pans or cotton-stoppered bottles, with some food material and moist cloth or paper; lenses.

_Observations._

Notice the general worm-like form of the maggot, or grub, the plain and uniform color, and the absence of all elaborate structures, as wings and feelers.

1. Since this creature is destined to become a flying or walking insect, what organs will have to appear? Is there any indication of these structures at present?

2. Give the color of the specimen, and explain how the presence or absence of strong light seems to have affected the color. Is this effect usual in animals or plants that you know?

3. Tell how the animal gets from place to place, describing any special structures you find which aid in this work.