What badge or sign was worn by those who engaged in the Crusades?

They distinguished themselves by crosses of different colors, worn on their clothes; from which they took the name of Croises, or Cross-bearers; each nation wore different colors: for instance, the English had white crosses, the French red, and so on.

To what invention is the art of Navigation much indebted?

To that of the Mariner's Compa.s.s, in the beginning of the 14th century; and from this period may be dated the present perfection of this useful art.

You have given me an account of the restoration of Navigation in Southern Europe: did not the inhabitants of the North also turn their attention to it?

Yes: about the same time, a new society of merchants was formed in the northern parts, which not only carried commerce to the greatest perfection of which it was capable, till the discovery of the Indies, but also formed new codes of useful laws for its regulation.

_Codes_, books or writings setting forth certain laws or rules respecting particular subjects; books of civil laws.

Are Navigation and Commerce inseparably connected with each other?

It may be considered as a general maxim, that their union is so intimate, that the fall of one inevitably draws after it that of the other; and that they will always either flourish or decline together may be seen, by examining the reason of their pa.s.sing successively from the Venetians, Genoese, &c., to the Portuguese and Spaniards, and from them to the English, Dutch, &c.

_Maxim_, rule, an established principle.

_Intimate_, close.

_Inevitably_, without possibility of escape, unavoidably.

CHAPTER XVIII.

MUSIC, PAINTING, POETRY, ASTRONOMY, ARTS AND SCIENCES, ART OF WRITING, AND CHEMISTRY.

What are the earliest accounts of Musical Instruments on record?

The earliest accounts of music which we possess are to be found in the Bible, in which the state of the world before the flood is noticed.

Jubal is said to have been "the father of them that play upon the harp and organ;" but it is not to be supposed that these instruments at all resembled the harp and organ of modern times. Musical instruments, in the times of David and Solomon, were used in religious services; and music was certainly employed by the Jews on many other occasions, as at funerals and weddings, at harvest home, and at festivals of all kinds.

_Modern_, opposed to ancient, pertaining to the present time, or time not long past.

_Festival_, a rejoicing, a feast, a season dedicated to mirth.

What nation was particularly celebrated for musical talents?

The ancient Egyptians; who were so celebrated for their talents in music, that the distinguished philosophers of Greece braved many dangers, in order to study the science in Egypt; and this, at a period when the Egyptians were far from being in the same high state of civilization as their forefathers had been in earlier times. The history and monuments of ancient Egypt have many accounts and representations of musical instruments, and remains of these have lately been discovered, so that we have ocular demonstration both of their existence and form.

_Civilization_, freedom from barbarity, polish, politeness, possession of knowledge and the arts of life.

_Ocular_, known or seen by the eye.

_Demonstration_, the act of proving with certainty.

In how many divisions may musical instruments be arranged?

There are three kinds, namely, _wind_ instruments, as the trumpet, and the organ;--_stringed_ instruments, as the harp or lyre, violin, &c.; and instruments of _concussion_, in which the sound is produced by striking a sonorous body, as for instance the drum, bells, &c.

Which of these three kinds was the first invented?

It is impossible, at the present day, to decide which; but it is most probable that instruments with strings were the last invented of the three kinds; and it is most likely, that of those in which sound is produced by the application of wind, the trumpet or horn was first used. This instrument, in its rudest form, was ready fashioned to the hand of man; the horn of a ram or of an ox, or some of the larger kinds of sea-sh.e.l.ls, were soon discovered to possess the power of producing sound, by being blown into through a small hole at the pointed end.

What improvement in this instrument would naturally follow?

Mankind having discovered the property possessed by a hollow tube of producing a certain sound, soon found that the note varied according to the length and capacity of the tube. A much greater improvement soon after took place; it was discovered that one tube answered the purpose of many by boring holes in the course of its length, and producing various musical sounds by stopping with the fingers certain of these holes. Most of our modern wind instruments are but improvements on the ancient inventions.

_Tube_, a pipe; a long hollow body.

Was not Vocal Music used before the invention of Instrumental?

_Vocal_ music, namely, that produced by the human voice, (so called to distinguish it from _instrumental_, that produced by instruments,) was undoubtedly the first: for man had not only the various tones of his own voice to make his observations on, before any art or instrument was found out; but the various natural strains of birds to give him a lesson in improving it, and in modulating the sounds of which it is capable.

_Modulating_, forming sound to a certain key.

To what circ.u.mstance did an ancient poet ascribe the invention of stringed instruments?

To the observation of the winds whistling in the hollow reeds. As for other kinds of instruments, there were so many occasions for cords or strings, that men were not long in observing their various sounds, which might give rise to stringed instruments. Those of concussion, as drums and cymbals, might result from the observation of the naturally hollow noise made by concave bodies when struck.

What are the most ancient stringed instruments?

The most ancient instruments of this kind, whose form is known, are those of the ancient Egyptians; among these the harp stands pre-eminent. One of the most celebrated representations of an Egyptian harp was drawn from a painting discovered in one of the caverns in the mountains of Egyptian Thebes, by some travellers: it is called the Theban harp, and has thirteen strings; its form is extremely elegant.

This harp is supposed to be one of the kind in use before and at the time of Sesostris. Remains of Egyptian harps of a more simple construction, with only four strings, have likewise been discovered.

Among the monuments of ancient Rome, there are representations of stringed instruments resembling the harp, but not equal in beauty of form to the famous Egyptian harp already mentioned.

_Pre-eminent_, surpa.s.sing others.

Who was Sesostris?

A King of Egypt, who is said to have reigned some ages before the siege of Troy. He appears to have been celebrated for his conquests, and for the number of edifices he erected to perpetuate his fame.

_Perpetuate_, to preserve from extinction; to continue the memory of a person or event.