in the month of April the Great Bear is directly overhead (for an observer in the United Kingdom); at the same hour in September it is low down in the north; at the same hour July it is in the west; by Christmas it is at the east. From the remotest antiquity this group of stars has attracted attention. The stars in the Great Bear were comprised in a great catalogue of stars, made two thousand years ago, which has been handed down to us. From the positions of the stars given in this catalogue it is possible to reconstruct the Great Bear as it appeared in those early days. This has been done, and it appears that the seven princ.i.p.al stars have not changed in this lapse of time to any large extent, so that the configuration of the Great Bear remains practically the same now as it was then. The beginner must first obtain an acquaintance with this group of seven stars, and then his further progress in this branch of astronomy will be greatly facilitated. The Great Bear is, indeed, a splendid constellation, and its only rival is to be found in Orion, which contains more brilliant stars, though it does not occupy so large a region in the heavens.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 80.--The Great Bear and Pole Star.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 81.--The Great Bear and Ca.s.siopeia.]

In the first place, we observe how the Great Bear enables the Pole Star, which is the most important object in the northern heavens, to be readily found. The Pole Star is very conveniently indicated by the direction of the two stars, b and a, of the Great Bear, which are, accordingly, generally known as the "pointers." This use of the Great Bear is shown on the diagram in Fig. 80, in which the line b a, produced onwards and slightly curved, will conduct to the Pole Star. There is no likelihood of making any mistake in this star, as it is the only bright one in the neighbourhood. Once it has been seen it will be readily identified on future occasions, and the observer will not fail to notice how constant is the position which it preserves in the heavens. The other stars either rise or set, or, like the Great Bear, they dip down low in the north without actually setting, but the Pole Star exhibits no considerable changes. In summer or winter, by night or by day, the Pole Star is ever found in the same place--at least, so far as ordinary observation is concerned. No doubt, when we use the accurate instruments of the observatory the notion of the fixity of the Pole Star is abandoned; we then see that it has a slow motion, and that it describes a small circle every twenty-four hours around the true pole of the heavens, which is not coincident with the Pole Star, though closely adjacent thereto. The distance is at present a little more than a degree, and it is gradually lessening, until, in the year A.D. 2095, the distance will be under half a degree.

The Pole Star itself belongs to another inconsiderable group of stars known as the Little Bear. The two princ.i.p.al members of this group, next in brightness to the Pole Star, are sometimes called the "Guards." The Great Bear and the Little Bear, with the Pole Star, form a group in the northern sky not paralleled by any similarly situated constellation in the southern heavens. At the South Pole there is no conspicuous star to indicate its position approximately--a circ.u.mstance disadvantageous to astronomers and navigators in the southern hemisphere.

It will now be easy to add a third constellation to the two already acquired. On the opposite side of the Pole Star to the Great Bear, and at about the same distance, lies a very pleasing group of five bright stars, forming a W. These are the more conspicuous members of the constellation Ca.s.siopeia, which contains altogether about sixty stars visible to the naked eye. When the Great Bear is low down in the north, then Ca.s.siopeia is high overhead. When the Great Bear is high overhead, then Ca.s.siopeia is to be looked for low down in the north. The configuration of the leading stars is so striking that once the eye has recognised them future identification will be very easy--the more so when it is borne in mind that the Pole Star lies midway between Ca.s.siopeia and the Great Bear (Fig. 81). These important constellations will serve as guides to the rest. We shall accordingly show how the learner may distinguish the various other groups visible from the British Islands or similar northern lat.i.tudes.

The next constellation to be recognised is the imposing group which contains the Great Square of Pegasus. This is not, like Ursa Major, or like Ca.s.siopeia, said to be "circ.u.mpolar." The Great Square of Pegasus sets and rises daily. It cannot be seen conveniently during the spring and the summer, but in autumn and in winter the four stars which mark the corners of the square can be easily recognised. There are certain small stars within the region so limited; perhaps about thirty can be counted by an unaided eye of ordinary power in these lat.i.tudes. In the south of Europe, with its pure and bright skies, the number of visible stars appears to be greatly increased. An acute observer at Athens has counted 102 in the same region.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 82.--The Great Square of Pegasus.]

The Great Square of Pegasus can be reached by a line from the Pole Star over the end of Ca.s.siopeia. If it be produced about as far again it will conduct the eye to the centre of the Great Square of Pegasus (Fig. 82).

The line through b and a in Pegasus continued 45 to the south points out the important star Fomalhaut in the mouth of the Southern Fish. To the right of this line, nearly half-way down, is the rather vague constellation of Aquarius, where a small equilateral triangle with a star in the centre may be noticed.

The square of Pegasus is not a felicitous ill.u.s.tration of the way in which the boundaries of the constellations should be defined. There can be no more naturally a.s.sociated group than the four stars of this square, and they ought surely to be included in the same constellation.

Three of the stars--marked a, b, g--do belong to Pegasus; but that at the fourth corner--also marked a--is placed in a different figure, known as Andromeda, whereof it is, indeed, the brightest member. The remaining bright stars of Andromeda are marked b and g, and they are readily identified by producing one side of the Square of Pegasus in a curved direction. We have thus a remarkable array of seven stars, which it is both easy to identify and easy to remember, notwithstanding that they are contributed to by three different constellations. They are respectively a, b, and g of Pegasus; a, b, and g of Andromeda; and a of Perseus. The three form a sort of handle, as it were, extending from one side of the square, and are a group both striking in appearance, and useful in the further identification of celestial objects. b Andromedae, with two smaller stars, form the girdle of the unfortunate heroine.

a Persei lies between two other stars (g and d) of the same constellation. If we draw a curve through these three and prolong it in a bold sweep, we are conducted to one of the gems of the northern heavens--the beautiful star Capella, in Auriga (Fig. 83). Close to Capella are three small stars forming an isosceles triangle--these are the Hoedi or Kids. Capella and Vega are, with the exception of Arcturus, the two most brilliant stars in the northern heavens; and though Vega is probably the more l.u.s.trous of the two, yet the opposite opinion has been entertained. Different eyes will frequently form various estimates of the relative brilliancy of stars which approach each other in brightness. The difficulty of making a satisfactory comparison between Vega and Capella is greatly increased by the wide distance in the heavens at which they are separated, as well as by a slight difference in colour, for Vega is distinctly whiter than Capella.

This contrast between the colour of stars is often a source of uncertainty in the attempt to compare their relative brilliancy; so that when actual measurements have to be effected by instrumental means, it is necessary to compare the two stars alternately with some object of intermediate hue.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 83.--Perseus and its Neighbouring Stars.]

On the opposite side of the pole to Capella, but not quite so far away, will be found four small stars in a quadrilateral. They form the head of the Dragon, the rest of whose form coils right round the pole.

If we continue the curve formed by the three stars g, a, and d in Perseus, and if we bend round this curve gracefully into one of an opposite flexion, in the manner shown in Fig. 83, we are first conducted to two other princ.i.p.al stars in Perseus, marked e and z. The region of Perseus is one of the richest in the heavens. We have here a most splendid portion of the Milky Way, and the field of the telescope is crowded with stars beyond number. Even a small telescope or an opera-gla.s.s directed to this teeming constellation cannot fail to delight the observer, and convey to him a profound impression of the extent of the sidereal heavens. We shall give in a subsequent paragraph a brief enumeration of some of the remarkable telescopic objects in Perseus. Pursuing in the same figure the line e and z, we are conducted to the remarkable little group known as the Pleiades.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 84.--The Pleiades.]

The Pleiades form a group so universally known and so easily identified that it hardly seems necessary to give any further specific instructions for their discovery. It may, however, be observed that in these lat.i.tudes they cannot be seen before midnight during the summer. Let us suppose that the search is made at about 11 p.m. at night: on the 1st of January the Pleiades will be found high up in the sky in the south-west; on the 1st of March, at the same hour, they will be seen to be setting in the west. On the 1st of May they are not visible; on the 1st of July they are not visible; on the 1st of September they will be seen low down in the east. On the 1st of November they will be high in the heavens in the south-east. On the ensuing 1st of January the Pleiades will be in the same position as they were on the same date in the previous year, and so on from year to year. It need, perhaps, hardly be explained here that these changes are not really due to movements of the constellations; they are due, of course, to the apparent annual motion of the sun among the stars.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 85.--Orion, Sirius, and the Neighbouring Stars.]

The Pleiades are shown in the figure (Fig. 84), where a group of ten stars is represented, this being about the number visible with the unaided eye to those who are gifted with very acute vision. The lowest telescopic power will increase the number of stars to thirty or forty (Galileo saw more than forty with his first telescope), while with telescopes of greater power the number is largely increased; indeed, no fewer than 625 have been counted with the aid of a powerful telescope.

The group is, however, rather too widely scattered to make an effective telescopic object, except with a large field and low power. Viewed through an opera-gla.s.s it forms a very pleasing spectacle.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 86.--Castor and Pollux.]

If we draw a ray from the Pole Star to Capella, and produce it sufficiently far, as shown in Fig. 85, we come to the great constellation of our winter sky, the splendid group of Orion. The brilliancy of the stars in Orion, the conspicuous belt, and the telescopic objects which it contains, alike render this group remarkable, and place it perhaps at the head of the constellations. The leading star in Orion is known either as a Orionis, or as Betelgeuze, by which name it is here designated. It lies above the three stars, d, e, z, which form the belt. Betelgeuze is a star of the first magnitude, and so also is Rigel, on the opposite side of the belt. Orion thus enjoys the distinction of containing two stars of the first magnitude in its group, while the five other stars shown in Fig. 85 are of the second magnitude.

The neighbourhood of Orion contains some important stars. If we carry on the line of the belt upwards to the right, we are conducted to another star of the first magnitude, Aldebaran, which strongly resembles Betelgeuze in its ruddy colour. Aldebaran is the brightest star in the constellation of Taurus. It is this constellation which contains the Pleiades already referred to, and another more scattered group known as the Hyades, which can be discovered near Aldebaran.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 87.--The Great Bear and the Lion.]

The line of the belt of Orion continued downwards to the left conducts the eye to the gem of the sky, the splendid Sirius, which is the most brilliant star in the heavens. It has, indeed, been necessary to create a special order of magnitude for the reception of Sirius alone; all the other first magnitude stars, such as Vega and Capella, Betelgeuze and Aldebaran, coming a long way behind. Sirius, with a few other stars of much less l.u.s.tre, form the constellation of Canis Major.

It is useful for the learner to note the large configuration, of an irregular lozenge shape, of which the four corners are the first magnitude stars, Aldebaran, Betelgeuze, Sirius, and Rigel (Fig. 85).

The belt of Orion is placed symmetrically in the centre of the group, and the whole figure is so striking that once perceived it is not likely to be forgotten.

About half way from the Square of Pegasus to Aldebaran is the chief star in the Ram--a bright orb of the second magnitude; with two others it forms a curve, at the other end of which will be found g of the same constellation, which was the first double star ever noticed.

We can again invoke the aid of the Great Bear to point out the stars in the constellation of Gemini (Fig. 86). If the diagonal joining the stars d and b of the body of the Bear be produced in the direction opposite to the tail, it will lead to Castor and Pollux, two remarkable stars of the second magnitude. This same line carried a little further on pa.s.ses near the star Procyon, of the first magnitude, which is the only conspicuous object in the constellation of the Little Dog.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 88.--Bootes and the Crown.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 89.--Virgo and the neighbouring Constellations.]

The pointers in the Great Bear marked a b will also serve to indicate the constellation of the Lion. If we produce the line joining them in the direction opposite from that used in finding the Pole, we are brought into the body of the Lion. This group will be recognised by the star of the first magnitude called Regulus. It is one of a series of stars forming an object somewhat resembling a sickle: three of the group are of the second magnitude. The Sickle has a special claim on our notice because it contains the radiant point from which the periodic shooting star shower known as the Leonids diverges. Regulus lies alongside the sun's highway through the stars, at a point which he pa.s.ses on the 21st of August every year.

Between Gemini and Leo the inconspicuous constellation of the Crab may be found; the most striking object it contains is the misty patch called Praesepe or the Bee-Hive, which the smallest opera-gla.s.s will resolve into its component stars.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 90.--The Constellation of Lyra.]

The tail of the Great Bear, when prolonged with a continuation of the curve which it possesses, leads to a brilliant star of the first magnitude known as Arcturus, the princ.i.p.al star in the constellation of Bootes (Fig. 88). A few other stars, marked b, g, d, and e in the same constellation, are also shown in the figure.

Among the stars visible in these lat.i.tudes Arcturus is to be placed next to Sirius in point of brightness. Two stars in the southern hemisphere, invisible in these lat.i.tudes, termed a Centauri and Canopus, are nearly as bright as Vega and Capella, but not quite as bright as Arcturus.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Bootes is a striking semicircular group known as the Crown or Corona Borealis. It will be readily found from its position as indicated in the figure, or it may be identified by following the curved line indicated by b, d, e, and z in the Great Bear.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 91.--Vega, the Swan, and the Eagle.]

The constellation of Virgo is princ.i.p.ally characterised by the first magnitude star called Spica, or a Virginis. This may be found from the Great Bear; for if the line joining the two stars a and g in that constellation be prolonged with a slight curve, it will conduct the eye to Spica. We may here notice another of those large configurations which are of great a.s.sistance in the study of the stars.

There is a fine equilateral triangle, whereof Arcturus and Spica form two of the corners, while the third is indicated by Denebola, the bright star near the tail of the Lion (Fig. 89).

In the summer evenings when the Crown is overhead, a line from the Pole Star through its fainter edge, continued nearly to the southern horizon, encounters the brilliant red star Cor Scorpionis, or the Scorpion's Heart (Antares), which was the first star mentioned as having been seen with the telescope in the daytime.

The first magnitude star, Vega, in the constellation of the Lyre, can be readily found at the corner of a bold triangle, of which the Pole Star and Arcturus form the base (Fig. 90). The brilliant whiteness of Vega will arrest the attention, while the small group of neighbouring stars which form the Lyre produces one of the best defined constellations.

Near Vega is another important constellation, known as the Swan or Cygnus. The brightest star will be identified as the vertex of a right-angled triangle, of which the line from Vega to the Pole Star is the base, as shown in Fig. 91. There are in Cygnus five princ.i.p.al stars, which form a constellation of rather remarkable form.

The last constellation which we shall here describe is that of Aquila or the Eagle, which contains a star of the first magnitude, known as Altair; this group can be readily found by a line from Vega over b Cygni, which pa.s.ses near the line of three stars, forming the characteristic part of the Eagle.

We have taken the opportunity to indicate in these sketches of the constellations the positions of some other remarkable telescopic objects, the description of which we must postpone to the following chapters.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTANT SUNS.

Sirius Contrasted with the Sun--Stars can be Weighed, but not in general Measured--The Companion of Sirius--Determination of the Weights of Sirius and his Companion--Dark Stars--Variable and Temporary Stars--Enormous Number of Stars.

The splendid pre-eminence of Sirius has caused it to be observed with minute care from the earliest times in the history of astronomy. Each generation of astronomers devoted time and labour to determine the exact places of the brightest stars in the heavens. A vast ma.s.s of observations as to the place of Sirius among the stars had thus been acc.u.mulated, and it was found that, like many other stars, Sirius had what astronomers call _proper motion_. Comparing the place of Sirius with regard to the other stars now with the place which it occupied one hundred years ago, there is a difference of two minutes (127") in its situation. This is a small quant.i.ty: it is so small that the unaided eye could not see it. Could we now see the sky as it appeared one century ago, we should still see this star in its well-known place to the left of Orion. Careful alignment by the eye would hardly detect that Sirius was moving in two, or even in three or in four centuries. But the accuracy of the meridian circle renders these minute quant.i.ties evident, and gives to them their true significance. To the eye of the astronomer, Sirius, instead of creeping along with a movement which centuries will not show, is pursuing its majestic course with a velocity appropriate to its dimensions.