71. The majority of the magical formulas attributed to Democritus are the work of forgers like Bolos of Mendes (cf. Diels, _Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, I^2, pp. 440 f.), but the authorship of this literature could not have been attributed to him, had not these tendencies been so favorable.

72. On Jewish magic see: Blau, _Das altjudische Zauberwesen_, 1898; cf.

Hubert, _loc. cit._, p. 1505.

73. Pliny, _H. N._, x.x.x, 1, -- 6; Juvenal, VI, 548 ff. In Pliny's opinion these magicians were especially acquainted with _veneficas artes_. The toxicology of Mithridates goes back to that source (Pliny, XXV, 2, 7). Cf.

Horace, _Epod._, V, 21; Virgil, _Buc._ VIII, 95, etc.

74. Cf. _supra_, pp. 151 ff.

75. Minucius Felix, _Octavius_, 26; cf. _supra_, ch. VI, p. 152.

76. In a pa.s.sage outlining the Persian demonology (see _supra_, n. 39), Porphyry tells us (_De Abst._, II, 41):

[Greek: Toutous] (sc. [Greek: tous daimonas]) [Greek: malista kai ton proestota auton] (c. 42, [Greek: he proestosa auton dunamis] = Ahriman) [Greek: ektimosin hoi ta kaka dia ton goeteion prattomenoi k. t. l.] Cf.

Lactantius, _Divin. Inst._, II, 14 (I, p. 164, 10, Brandt ed.); Clem. of Alexandria, _Stromat._, III, p. 46 C, and _supra_, n. 37. The idea that the demons subsisted on the offerings and particularly on the smoke of the sacrifices agrees entirely with the old Persian and Babylonian ideas. See Yasht V, XXI, 94: What "becomes of the libations which the wicked bring to you after sunset?" "The devas receive them," etc.--In the cuneiform tablet of the deluge (see 160 ff.), the G.o.ds "smell the good odor and gather above the officiating priest like flies." (Dhorme, _Textes religieux a.s.syro-babyloniens_, 1907, p. 115; cf. Maspero, _Hist. anc. des peuples de l'Orient_, I, p. 681.).

77. Plut., _De Iside_, c. 46.

78. The _druj Nasu_ of the Mazdeans; cf. Darmesteter, _Zend-Avesta_, II, p.

xi and 146 ff.

79. Cf. Lucan, _Phars._, VI, 520 ff.

80. Mommsen, _Strafrecht_, pp. 639 ff. There is no doubt that the legislation of Augustus was directed against magic, cf. Dion, LII, 34, 3.--Manilius (II, 108) opposes to astrology the {281} _artes quorum haud permissa facultas_. Cf. also Suet., _Aug._, 31.

81. Zachariah the Scholastic, _Vie de Severe d'Antioche_, Kugener ed.

(_Patrol. orientalis_, II), 1903, pp. 57 ff.

82. Magic at Rome in the fifth century: Wunsch, _Sethianische Verfluchungstafeln aus Rom_, Leipsic, 1898 (magical leads dated from 390 to 420); _Revue hist. litt. relig._, VIII, 1903, p. 435, and Burchardt, _Die Zeit Constantin's_, 2d ed., 1880, pp. 236 ff.

VIII. THE TRANSFORMATION OF PAGANISM.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The history of the destruction of paganism is a subject that has tempted many historians. Beugnot (1835), Lasaulx (1854), Schulze (Jena, 1887-1892) have tried it with varying success (see Wissowa, _Religion der Romer_, pp. 84 ff.). But hardly any one has been interested in the reconstruction of the theology of the last pagans, although material is not lacking. The meritorious studies of Gaston Boissier (_La fin du Paganisme_, Paris, 1891) treat especially the literary and moral aspects of that great transformation. Allard (_Julien l'Apostat_, I, 1900, p. 39 ff.) has furnished a summary of the religious evolution during the fourth century.

1. Socrates, _Hist. Eccl._, IV, 32.

2. It is a notable fact that astrology scarcely penetrated at all into the rural districts (_supra_, ch. VII, n. 9), where the ancient devotions maintained themselves; see the _Vita S. Eligii_, Migne, _P. L._, XL, col.

1172 f.--In the same way the cult of the menhirs in Gaul persisted in the Middle Ages; see d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Comptes Rendus Acad. Inscr._, 1906, pp. 146 ff.; S. Reinach, _Mythes, cultes_, III, 1908, pp. 365 ff.

3. Aug., _Civ. Dei_, IV, 21 _et pa.s.sim_. Arn.o.bius and Lactantius had previously developed this theme.

4. On the use made of mythology during the fourth century, cf. Burckhardt, _Zeit Contantins_, 2d ed., 1880, pp. 145-147; Boissier, _La fin du paganisme_, II, pp. 276 ff. and _pa.s.sim_. {282}

5. It is well known that the poems of Prudentius (348-410), especially the Peristephanon, contain numerous attacks on paganism and the pagans.

6. Cf. _La polemique de l'Ambrosiaster contre les paens_ (_Rev. hist. et litt. relig._, VIII, 1903, pp. 418 ff.). On the personality of the author (probably the converted Jew Isaac), cf. Souter, _A Study of Ambrosiaster_, Cambridge, 1905 (_Texts and Studies_, VII) and his edition of the _Quaestiones_, (Vienna, 1908), intr. p. xxiv.

7. The ident.i.ty of Firmicus Maternus, the author of _De errore profanarum religionum_, and that of the writer of the eight books _Matheseos_ appears to have been definitely established.

8. Maximus was Bishop of Turin about 458-465 A. D. We possess as yet only a very defective edition of the treatises _Contra Paganos_ and _Contra Judaeos_ (Migne, _Patr. lat._, LVII, col. 781 ff.).

9. Particularly the _Carmen adversus paganos_ written after Eugene's attempt at restoration in 394 A. D. (Riese, _Anthol. lat._, I, 20) and the _Carmen ad senatorem ad idolorum servitutem conversum_, attributed to St.

Cyprian (Hartel. ed., III, p. 302), which is probably contemporaneous with the former.

10. On this point see the judicious reflections of Paul Allard, _Julien l'Apostat_, I, 1900, p. 35.

11. Hera was the G.o.ddess of the air after the time of the Stoics ([Greek: Hera] = [Greek: aer]).

12. Cf. _supra_, pp. 51, 75, 99, 120, 148. Besides the Oriental G.o.ds the only ones to retain their authority were those of the Grecian mysteries, Bacchus and Hecate, and even these were transformed by their neighbors.

13. The wife of Praetextatus, after praising his career and talents in his epitaph, adds: "Sed ista parva: tu pius mystes sacris | teletis reperta mentis arcano premis, | divumque numen multiplex doctus colis" (_CIL_, 1779 = Dessau, _Inscr. sel._, 1259).

14. Pseudo-August. [Ambrosiaster], _Quaest. Vet. et Nov. Test._, (p. 139, 9-11, Souter ed.): "Paganos elementis esse {283} subiectos nulli dubium est.... Paganos elementa colere omnibus cognitum est"; cf. 103 (p. 304, 4 Souter ed.): "Solent (pagani) ad elementa confugere dicentes haec se colere quibus gubernaculis regitur vita humana" (cf. _Rev. hist. lit. rel._, VIII, 1903, p. 426, n. 3).--Maximus of Turin (Migne, _P. L._, LVII, 783): "Dic.u.n.t pagani: nos solem, lunam et stellas et universa elementa colimus et veneramur." Cf. _Mon myst. Mithra_, I, p. 103, n. 4, p. 108.

15. Firmicus Maternus, _Mathes._, VII prooem: "(Deus) qui ad fabricationem omnium elementorum diversitate composita ex contrariis et repugnantibus cuncta perfecit."

16. _Elementum_ is the translation of [Greek: stoicheion], which has had the same meaning in Greek at least ever since the first century (see Diels, _Elementum_, 1899, pp. 44 ff., and the Septuagint, Sap. Sal., 7, 18; 19, 17.) Pfister, "_Die [Greek: stoicheia tou kosmou] in den Briefen des Paulus_," _Philologus_, LXIX, 1910, p. 410.--In the fourth century this meaning was generally accepted: Macrobius, _Somn. Scipionis_, I, 12, -- 16: "Caeli dico et siderum, aliorumque elementorum"; cf. I, 11, -- 7 ff.

Martia.n.u.s Capella, II, 209; Ambrosiaster, _loc. cit._; Maximus of Turin, _loc. cit._; Lactantius, II, 13, 2: "Elementa mundi, caelum, solem, terram, mare."--Cf. Diels, _op. cit._, pp. 78 ff.

17. Cf. _Rev. hist. litt. rel._, VIII, 1903, pp. 429 ff.--Until the end of the fifth century higher education in the Orient remained in the hands of the pagans. The life of Severus of Antioch, by Zachariah the Scholastic, preserved in a Syrian translation [_supra_, ch. VII, n. 81], is particularly instructive in this regard. The Christians, who were opposed to paganism and astrology, consequently manifested an aversion to the profane sciences in general, and in that way they became responsible to a serious extent for the gradual extinction of the knowledge of the past (cf.

_Rev. hist. litt. rel._, _ibid._, p. 431; Royer, _L'enseignement d'Ausone a Alcuin_, 1906, p. 130 ff.). But it must be said in their behalf that before them Greek philosophy had taught the vanity of every science that did not have the moral culture of the ego for its purpose, see Geffcken, _Aus der Werdezeit des Christentums_, p. 7, p. 111.

18. _Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, p. 294. Cf. _supra_, pp. 175 f. {284}

19. Ambrosiaster, _Comm. in Epist. Pauli_, p. 58 B: "Dicentes per istos posse ire ad Deum sicut per comites pervenire ad regem" (cf. _Rev. his.

lit. rel._, VIII, 1903, p. 427).--The same idea was set forth by Maximus of Turin (_Adv. pag._, col. 791) and by Lactantius (_Inst. div._, II, 16, -- 5 ff., p. 168 Brandt); on the celestial court, see also Arn.o.bius, II, 36; Tertullian, _Apol._, 24.--Zeus bore the name of king, but the h.e.l.lenic Olympus was in reality a turbulent republic. The conception of a supreme G.o.d, the sovereign of a hierarchical court, seems to have been of Persian origin, and to have been propagated by the magi and the mysteries of Mithra. The inscription of the Nemroud Dagh speaks of [Greek: Dios oromasdou thronous] (_supra_, ch. VI, n. 26), and, in fact, a bas-relief shows Zeus-Oramasdes sitting on a throne, scepter in hand. The Mithra bas-reliefs likewise represent Jupiter Ormuzd on a throne, with the other G.o.ds standing around him (_Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, p. 129; II, p. 188, fig.

11); and Hostanes pictured the angels sitting around the throne of G.o.d (_supra_, ch. VI, n. 38; see Rev. iv). Moreover, the celestial G.o.d was frequently compared, not to a king in general, but to the Great King, and people spoke of his satraps; cf. Pseudo-Arist., [Greek: Peri kosmou], c. 6, p. 398 _a_, 10 ff. = Apul., _De mundo_, c. 26; Philo, _De opif. mundi_, c.

23, 27 (p. 24, 17; 32, 24, Cohn); Maximus of Turin, X, 9; and Capelle, _Die Schrift von der Welt_ (_Neue Jahrb. fur das kla.s.s. Altert._, VIII), 1905, p. 556, n. 6. Particularly important is a pa.s.sage of Celsus (Origen, _Contra Cels._, VIII, 35) where the relation of this doctrine to the Persian demonology is shown. But the Mazdean conception must have combined, at an early date, with the old Semitic idea that Baal was the lord and master of his votaries (_supra_, p. 94 ff.). In his _Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte_, (2d. ed., 1906, p. 364 ff.), Holtzmann insists on the fact that the people derived their conception of the kingdom of G.o.d from the pattern of the Persian monarchy. See also _supra_, p. 111.

A comparison similar to this one, which is also found among the pagans of the fourth century, is the comparison of heaven with a city (Nectarius in St. Aug., _Epist._, 103 [Migne, _P. L._, x.x.xIII, col. 386]): "Civitatem quam magnus Deus et bene meritae de eo animae habitant," etc. Compare the City of G.o.d of St. Augustine and the celestial Jerusalem of the Jews {285} (Bousset, _Religion des Judentums_, 1903, p. 272).--Cf. also Manilius, V, 735 ff.

20. August., _Epist._ 16 [48] (Migne, _Pat. Lat._, x.x.xIII, col. 82): "Equidem unum esse Deum summum sine initio, sine prole naturae, seu patrem magnum atque magnific.u.m, quis tam demens, tam mente captus neget esse certissimum? Huius nos virtutes per mundanum opus diffusas multis vocabulis invocamus, quoniam nomen eius cuncti proprium videlicet ignoramus. Nam Deus omnibus religionibus commune nomen est. Ita fit ut, dum eius quasi quaedam membra carptim variis supplicationibus prosequimur, totum colere profecto videamur." And at the end: "Dii te servent, per quos et eorum atque cunctorum mortalium communem patrem, universi mortales, quos terra sustinet, mille modis concordi discordia, veneramur et colimus." Cf.

Lactantius Placidus, _Comm. in Stat. Theb._, IV, 516.--Another pagan (_Epist._, 234 [21], Migne, _P. L._, x.x.xIII, col. 1031) speaks "deorum comitatu vallatus, Dei utique potestatibus emeritus, id est eius unius et universi et incomprehensibilis et ineffabilis infatigabilisque Creatoris impletus virtutibus, quos (_read_ quas) ut verum est angelos dicitis vel quid alterum post Deum vel c.u.m Deo aut a Deo aut in Deum."

21. The two ideas are contrasted in the _Paneg. ad Constantin. Aug._, 313 A. D., c. 26 (p. 212, Bahrens ed.): "Summe rerum sator, cuius tot nomina sunt quot gentium linguas esse voluisti (quem enim te ipse dici velis, scire non possumus), sive tute quaedam vis mensque divina es, quae toto infusa mundo omnibus miscearis elementis et sine ullo extrinsecus accedente vigoris impulsu per te ipsa movearis, sive alique supra omne caelum potestas es quae hoc opus tuum ex altiore naturae arce despicias."--Compare with what we have said of _Jupiter exsuperantissimus_ (p. 128).

22. Macrobius, _Sat._, I, 17 ff.; cf. Firm. Mat., _Err. prof. rel._, c. 8; _Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, 338 ff. Some have supposed that the source of Macrobius's exposition was Iamblichus.

23. Julian had intended to make all the temples centers of moral instruction (Allard, _Julien l'Apostat_, II, 186 ff.), and this great idea of his reign was partially realized after his death. His homilies were little appreciated by the bantering {286} and frivolous Greeks of Antioch or Alexandria, but they appealed much more to Roman gravity. At Rome the rigorous mysteries of Mithra had paved the way for reform. St. Augustine, _Epist._, 91 [202] (Migne, _P. L._, x.x.xIII, col. 315), c. 408 A. D., relates that moral interpretations of the old myths were told among the pagans during his time: "Illa omnia quae antiquitus de vita deorum moribusque conscripta sunt, longe aliter sunt intelligenda atque interpretanda sapientibus. Ita vero in templis populis congregatis recitari huiuscemodi salubres interpretationes heri et nudiustertius audivimus." See also _Civ. Dei_, II, 6: "Nec n.o.bis nescio quos susurros paucissimorum auribus anhelatos et arcana velut religione traditos iactent (pagani), quibus vitae probitas sanct.i.tasque discatur." Compare the epitaph of Praetextatus (_CIL_, VI, 1779 = Dessau, _Inscr. sel._, 1259): "Paulina veri et cast.i.tatis conscia | dicata templis," etc.--Firmicus Maternus (_Mathes_, II, 30) demands of the astrologer the practice of all virtues, "antistes enim deorum separatus et alienus esse debet a pravis illecebris voluptatum.... Itaque purus, castus esto, etc."

24. This is clearly a.s.serted by the verses of the epitaph cited (v. 22 ff): "Tu me, marite, disciplinarum bono | puram ac pudicam SORTE MORTIS EXIMENS, | in templa ducis ac famulam divis dicas: | Te teste cunctis imbuor mysteriis." Cf. Aug., _Epist._, 234 (Migne, _P. L._, x.x.xIII, col. 1031, letter of a pagan to the bishop,): "Via est in Deum melior, qua vir bonus, piis, puris iustis, castis, veris dictisque factisque probatus et deorum comitatu vallatus ... ire festinat; via est, inquam, qua purgati antiquorum sacrorum piis praeceptis expiationibusque purissimis et abstemiis observationibus decocti anima et corpore constantes deproperant."--St.

Augustine (_Civ. Dei_, VI, 1 and VI, 12) opposes the pagans who a.s.sert "deos non propter praesentem vitam coli sed propter aeternam."

25. The variations of this doctrine are set forth in detail by Macrobius, _In Somn. Scip._, I, 11, -- 5 ff. According to some, the soul lived above the sphere of the moon, where the immutable realm of eternity began; according to others, in the spheres of the fixed stars where they placed the Elysian Fields (_supra_, ch. V, n. 65; see Martian, _Capella_, II, 209). The Milky Way in particular was a.s.signed to them as their residence {287} (Macr., _ib._, c. 12; cf. Favon. Eulog., _Disput. de somn.

Scipionis_, p. 1, 20 [Holder ed.]: "Bene meritis ... lactei circuli lucida ac candens habitatio deberetur"; St. Jerome, _Ep._, 23, -- 3 [Migne, _P.

L._, XXII, col. 426), in conformity with an old Pythagorean doctrine (Gundel, _De stellarum appellatione et relig. Romana_, 1907, p. 153 [245]), as well as an Egyptian doctrine (Maspero, _Hist. des peuples de l'Orient_, I, p. 181).--According to others, finally, the soul was freed from all connection with the body and lived in the highest region of heaven, descending first through the gates of Cancer and Capricorn, at the intersection of the zodiac and the Milky Way, then through the spheres of the planets. This theory, which was that of the mysteries (_supra_, pp.

126, 152) obtained the approbation of Macrobius ("quorum sectae amicior est ratio") who explains it in detail (I, 12, -- 13 ff.). Arn.o.bius, who got his inspiration from Cornelius Labeo (_supra_, ch. V, n. 64), opposed it, as a widespread error (II, 16): "Dum ad corpora labimur et properamus humana ex mundanis circulis, sequuntur causae quibus mali simus et pessimi." Cf.

also, II, 33: "Vos, c.u.m primum soluti membrorum abieretis e nodis, alas vobis adfuturas putatis quibus ad caelum pergere atque ad sidera volare possitis," etc.). It had become so popular that the comedy by Querolus, written in Gaul during the first years of the fifth century, alluded to it in a mocking way, in connection with the planets (V, 38): "Mortales vero addere animas sive inferis nullus labor sive superis." It was still taught, at least in part, by the Priscillianists (Aug., _De haeres._, 70; Priscillia.n.u.s, ed. Schepss., p. 153, 15; cf. Herzog-Hauck, _Realencycl._, 3d ed., s. v. "Priscillian," p. 63.--We have mentioned (_supra_, ch. VI, n.