42. Porphyry, _De Abstin._, II, 56; Tertull., _Apol._, 9. Cf. Lagrange, _op. cit._, p. 445.

43. Even in the regions where the cities developed, the Baal and the Baalat always remained the divinities [Greek: poliouchoi], the protectors of the city which they were supposed to have founded.

44. Le Bas-Waddington, 2196.--Suidas, s. v. [Greek: Phularches] (II, 2, col. 1568, Bernhardy). Cf. Marquardt, _Staatsverwaltung_, I, p. 405, 409.

45. Hippolytus, Adv. Haeres., V, II, -- 7: [Greek: a.s.surion teletai]; -- 18: [Greek: a.s.surion musteria] (pp. 145, 148, ed. by Cruice). Cf. Origen, _Contra Celsum_, I, 12. Pognon (_Inscrip. semitiques_, {249} 1907, No. 48) has recently published a Syrian epitaph that is unfortunately mutilated, but which seems to be that of an adept of the pagan mysteries; see Noldeke, _Zeitschrift fur a.s.syr._, XXI, 1907, p. 155.

46. On the Semitic notion of purity, W. Robertson Smith has written admirably and convincingly (pp. 446 ff. and _pa.s.sim_). The question has been taken up from a different point of view by Lagrange, pp. 141 ff.--The development of the notion of purity in the ancient religions has been recently expounded by Farnell, _The Evolution of Religion_, 1905, pp. 88 ff., especially pp. 124 ff. Cf. also _supra_, p. 91 f. An example of the prohibitions and purifications is found in the Occident in an inscription, unfortunately mutilated, discovered at Rome and dedicated to Beellefarus (_CIL_, VI, 30934, 31168; cf. Lafaye, _Rev. hist. relig._, XVII, 1888, pp.

218 ff.; Dessau, _Inscr. sel._, 4343). If I have understood the text correctly it commands those who have eaten pork to purify themselves by means of honey.--On penances in the Syrian religions see ch. II, n. 31.

47. M. Clermont-Ganneau (_Etudes d'archeologie orientale_, II, 1896, p.

104) states that the epithet [Greek: hagios] is extremely rare in pagan h.e.l.lenism, and almost always betrays a Semitic influence. In such cases it corresponds to [Hebrew: QRSH], which to the Semites is the epithet _par excellence_ of the divinity. Thus Eshmon is [Hebrew: QRSH]; cf. Lidzbarski, _Ephemer. fur semit. Epigraph._, II, p. 155; Clermont-Ganneau, _Recueil d'archeol. orient._, III, p. 330; V, p. 322.--In Greek Le Bas-Waddington, 2720, has: [Greek: Oi katochoi hagiou ouraniou Dios]. Dittenberger, _Orientis inscript._, 620, [Greek: Zeus hagios Beel bosoros]. Some time ago I copied at a dealer's, a dedication engraved upon a lamp: [Greek: Theoi hagioi Arelseloi], in Latin: J. Dolichenus _sanctus_, _CIL_, VI, 413, X, 7949.--J. Heliopolita.n.u.s _sanctissimus_, _CIL_, VIII, 2627.--"Caelestis _sancta_," VIII, 8433, etc.--The African Saturn (= Baal) is often called _sanctus_.--_Hera sancta_ beside Jupiter Dolichenus, VI, 413.--Malakbel is translated by _Sol sanctissimus_, in the bilingual inscription of the Capitol, VI, 710 = Dessau, 4337. Cf. _deus sanctus aeternus_, V, 1058, 3761, and _Comptes Rendus Acad. Inscr._, 1906, p. 69.--See in general Delehaye, _a.n.a.lecta Bollandiana_, 1909, pp. 157 ff. {250}

48. As curious examples of Greco-Syrian syncretism we may mention the bas-relief of Ed-Douwar in the Louvre, which has been a.n.a.lyzed in detail by Dussaud (_Notes_, pp. 89 ff.), and especially that of Homs in the Brussels museum (_ibid._, 104 ff.).

49. Macrobius, I, 23, -- 11: "Ritu a.s.syrio magis quam Aegyptio colitur"; cf.

Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 5.--"Hermetic" theories penetrated even to the Sabians of Osrhoene (Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_, 166 ff.), although their influence seems to have been merely superficial (Bousset, _Gottingische gelehrt. Anzeigen_, 1905, 704 ff.)--The existence of [Greek: katochoi] at Baetocece and elsewhere appears to be due to Egyptian influence (Jalabert, _Melanges de la fac. orient. de Beyrouth_, II, 1907, pp. 308 ff.). The meaning of [Greek: katochos] which has been interpreted in different ways, is established, I think, by the pa.s.sages collected by Kroll, _Cat. codd.

astrol. graec._, V, pars 2, p. 146; cf. Otto, _Priester und Tempel_, I, p.

119; Bouche-Leclercq, _Hist. des Lagides_, IV, p. 335. It refers to the poor, the sick and even the "illumined" living within the temple enclosures and undoubtedly supported by the clergy, as were the refugees of the Christian period who availed themselves of the right of sanctuary in the churches (cf. _Comptes Rendus Acad. Inscr._, 1907, p. 454).

50. Cf. _infra_, n. 59.

51. Strabo, XVI, 1, 6. Cf. Pliny, _H. N._, VI, 6: "Durat adhuc ibi Iovis Beli templum." Cf. my _Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, pp. 35 ff.; Chapot, _Mem.

soc. antiq. de France_, 1902, pp. 239 ff.; Gruppe, _Griech. Mythol._, p.

1608, n. 1.

52. Lucian, _De dea Syria_, c. 10.

53. Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, I, pp. 233 ff. and _pa.s.sim_.

54. On the worship of Bel in Syria cf. _Comptes Rendus Acad. Inscr._, 1907, pp. 447 ff.--Cf. _infra_, n. 59.

55. On the Heliopolitan triad and the addition of Mercury to the original couple see Perdrizet, _Rev. etudes anc._, III, 1901, p. 258; Dussaud, _Notes_, p. 24; Jalabert, _Melanges fac. orient. de Bayrouth_, I, 1906, pp.

175 ff.--Triad of Hierapolis: Lucian, _De dea Syria_, c. 33. According to Dussaud, the three divinities came from Babylon together, _Notes_, p.

115.--The existence of a Phoenician triad (Baal, Astarte, Eshmoun or {251} Melkarth), and of a Palmyrian triad has been conjectured but without sufficient reason (_ibid._, 170, 172 ff.); the existence of Carthaginian triads is more probable (cf. Polybius, VII, 9, 11, and von Baudissin, _Iolaos_ [_Philothesia fur Paul Kleinert_], 1907, pp. 5 ff.)--See in general Usener, _Dreiheit_ (Extr. _Rhein. Museum_, LVIII), 1903, p. 32. The triads continued in the theology of the "Chaldaic Oracles" (Kroll, _De orac. Chald._, 13 ff.) and a threefold division of the world and the soul was taught in the "a.s.syrian mysteries" (_Archiv fur Religionswiss._, IX, 1906, p. 331, n. 1).

56. Boll, _Sphaera_, p. 372.--The introduction of astrology into Egypt seems to date back no further than the time of the Ptolemies.

57. The Seleucides, like the Roman emperors later, believed in Chaldean astrology (Appian., _Syr._, 28; Diodorus, II, 31, 2; cf. Riess in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realenc._, s. v. "Astrologie," col. 1814), and the kings of Commagene, as well as of a great number of Syrian cities, had the signs of the zodiac as emblems on their coins. It is even certain that this pseudo-science penetrated into those regions long before the h.e.l.lenistic period. Traces of it are found in the Old Testament (Schiaparelli; translation by Ludke, _Die Astron. im Alten Testament_, 1904, p. 46). It modified the entire Semitic paganism. The only cult which we know in any detail, that of the Sabians, a.s.signed the highest importance to it; but in the myths and doctrines of the others its influence is no less apparent (Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._, s. v. "Dea Syria," IV, col. 2241, and s. v.

"Gad"; cf. Baudissin, _Realencycl. fur prot. Theol._, s. v., "Sonne," pp.

510-520). To what extent, for instance, the clergy of Emesa had been subjected to its ascendency is shown by the novel of Heliodorus, written by a priest of that city (Rohde, _Griech. Roman_^2, p. 464 [436]), and by the horoscope that put Julia Domna upon the throne (_Vita Severi_, 3, 8; cf. A.

von Domaszewski, _Archiv fur Religionsw._, XI, 1908, p. 223). The irresistible influence extended even to the Arabian paganism (Noldeke in Hastings, _Encyclop. of Religion_, s. v. "Arabs," I, p. 661; compare, _Orac. Sibyll._, XIII, 64 ff., on Bostra). The sidereal character which has been attributed to the Syrian G.o.ds, was borrowed, but none the less real.

From very early times the Semites worshiped the sun, {252} the moon, and the stars (see Deut. iv. 19; Job x.x.xi. 25), especially the planet Venus, but this cult was of secondary importance only (see W. Robertson Smith, _op. cit._, p. 135, n. 1), although it grew in proportion as the Babylonian influence became stronger. The polemics of the Fathers of the Syrian Church show how considerable its prestige was in the Christian era (cf. Ephrem, _Opera Syriaca_, Rome, 1740, II, pp. 447 ff.; the "a.s.syrian" Tatian, c. 9 ff., etc.).

58. Humann and Puchstein, _Reise in Klein-Asien und Nord-Syrien_, 1890, pl.

XL; _Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, p. 188, fig. 8; Bouche-Leclercq, _Astrol. gr._, p. 439.

59. Cf. Wissowa, _op. cit._, p. 306-7.--On the temple of Bel at Palmyra, cf. Sobernheim, _Palmyrenische Inschriften_ (_Mitt. der vorderasiat.

Gesellsch._, X), 1905, pp. 319 ff.; Lidzbarski, _Ephemeris_, I, pp. 255 ff., II, p. 280.--Priests of Bel: Clermont-Ganneau, _Recueil d'arch.

orient._, VII, p. 12, 24, 364. Cf. _supra_, n. 54. The power of Palmyra under Zen.o.bia, who ruled from the Tigris to the Nile, must have had as a corollary the establishment of an official worship that was necessarily syncretic. Hence its special importance for the history of paganism.

Although the Babylonian astrology was a powerful factor in this worship, Judaism seems to have had just as great an influence in its formation.

There was at Palmyra a large Jewish colony, which the writers of the Talmud considered only tolerably orthodox (Chaps, _Gli Ebrei di Palmira_ [_Rivista Israelitica_, I], Florence, 1904, pp. 171 ff., 238 f. Cf. "Palmyra" in the _Jewish Encycl._; Jewish insc. of Palmyra; Euting, _Sitzb. Berl. Acad._, 1885, p. 669; Landauer, _ibid._, 1884, pp. 933 ff.). This colony seems to have made compromises with the idolaters. On the other hand we see Zen.o.bia herself rebuilding a synagogue in Egypt (_Revue archeologique_, x.x.x, 1875, p. III; _Zeitschrift fur Numismatik_, V, p. 229; Dittenberger, _Orientis inscript._, 729). This influence of Judaism seems to explain the development at Palmyra of the cult of [Greek: Zeus hupsitos kai epekoos], "he whose name is blessed in eternity." The name of Hypsistos has been applied everywhere to Jehovah and to the pagan Zeus (_supra_, p. 62, 128) at the same time. The text of Zosimus (I, 61), according to which Aurelian brought from Palmyra to Rome the statues of [Greek: Heliou te kai Belou]

(this has been wrongly changed to read [Greek: tou kai Belou]), proves that the {253} astrological religion of the great desert city recognized a supreme G.o.d residing in the highest heavens, and a solar G.o.d, his visible image and agent, according to the Semitic theology of the last period of paganism (_supra_, p. 134).

60. I have spoken of this solar eschatology in the memorial cited _infra_, n. 88.

61. This opinion is that of Posidonius (see Wendland, _Philos Schrift uber die Vorsehung_, Berlin, 1892, p. 68, n. 1; 70, n. 2). It is shared by the ancient astrologers.

62. This old pagan and gnostic idea has continued to the present day in Syria among the Nosaris; cf. Dussaud, _Histoire et religion des Nosaris_, 1900, p. 125.

63. The belief that pious souls are guided to heaven by a psychopompus, is found not only in the mysteries of Mithra (_Mon. myst. Mithra_, I, p. 310), but also in the Syrian cults where that role was often a.s.signed to the solar G.o.d, see Isid. Levy, _Cultes syriens dans le Talmud_ (_Revue des etudes juives_, XLIII), 1901, p. 5, and Dussaud, _Notes_, p. 27; cf. the Le Bas-Waddington inscription, 2442:

"[Greek: Basileu despota] (= the sun), [Greek: hilathi kai didou pasin hemin hugien katharan, prexis agathas kai biou telos esthlon]."--

The same idea is found in inscriptions in the Occident; as for instance in the peculiar epitaph of a sailor who died at Ma.r.s.eilles (Kaibel, _Inscr.

gr._, XIV, 2462 = _Epigr._, 650):

"[Greek: En de [te] tethneioisin homeguri [es] ge pelousin]

[Greek: doiai; ton hetere men epichthonie peph.o.r.etai,]

[Greek: he d' hetere teiressi sun aitherioisi ch.o.r.euei,]

[Greek: es straties eis eimi, lachon theon hegemonea]."

It is the same term that Julian used (_Cesars_, p. 336 C) in speaking of Mithra, the guide of souls: [Greek: hegemona theon]. Cf. also _infra_, n.

66 and ch. VIII, n. 24.

64. The Babylonian origin of the doctrine that the souls returned to heaven by crossing the seven planetary spheres, has been maintained by Anz (_Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnostizismus_, 1897; cf. _Mon. myst. Mithra_, I. pp. 38 ff., p. 309; Bousset, _Die Himmelsreise der Seele_ [_Archiv fur Religionsw._, IV], 1901, pp. 160 ff.) and "Gnosis" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, col. 1520. It has since been denied by Reitzenstein (_Poimandres_, p. 79; cf. Kroll, _Berl. philol. Wochensch._, {254} 1906, p.

486). But although it may have been given its precise shape and been transformed by the Greeks and even by the Egyptians, I persist in believing that it is of Chaldean and religious origin. I heartily agree with the conclusions recently formulated by Bousset, (_Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_, 1905, pp. 707 ff.). We can go farther: Whatever roots it may have had in the speculations of ancient Greece (Aristoph., _Pax_, 832, Plato, _Tim._, 42B, cf. Haussoullier, _Rev. de philol._, 1909, pp. 1 ff.), whatever traces of it may be found in other nations (Dieterich, _Mithrasliturgie_, pp. 182 ff.; _Nekyia_, p. 24, note; Rohde, _Psyche_, II, p. 131, n. 3), the idea itself of the soul rising to the divine stars after death certainly developed under the influence of the sidereal worship of the Semites to a point where it dominated all other eschatological theories. The belief in the eternity of souls is the corollary to the belief in the eternity of the celestial G.o.ds (p. 129). We cannot give the history of this conception here, and we shall limit ourselves to brief observations. The first account of this system ever given at Rome is found in "Scipio's Dream" (c. 3); it probably dates back to Posidonius of Apamea (cf. Wendland, _Die h.e.l.lenistisch-romische Kultur_, p. 85, 166, n. 3, 168, n. 1), and is completely impregnated with mysticism and astrolatry. The same idea is found a little later in the astrologer Manilius (I, 758; IV, 404, etc.). The shape which it a.s.sumed in Josephus (_Bell. Judaic._, V, 1, 5, -- 47) is also much more religious than philosophical and is strikingly similar to a dogma of Islam (happiness in store for those dying in battle; a Syrian [_ibid._, -- 54] risks his life that his soul may go to heaven).

This recalls the inscription of Antiochus of Commagene (Michel, _Recueil_, No. 735, l. 40):

[Greek: Soma pros ouranious Dios oromasdou thronous theophile psuchen propempsan eis ton apeiron aiona koimesetai].

It must be said that this sidereal immortality was not originally common to all men; it was reserved "omnibus qui patriam conservaverint adiuverint, auxerint" (_Somn. Scip._ c. 3, c. 8; cf. _Manil._, I, 758; Lucan, _Phars._, IX, 1 ff.; Wendland, _op. cit._, p. 85 n. 2), and this also is in conformity with the oldest Oriental traditions. The rites first used to a.s.sure immortality to kings and to make them the equals of the G.o.ds were extended little by little as a kind of privilege, to the important {255} persons of the state, and only very much later were they applied to all who died.

Regarding the diffusion of this belief from the beginning of the first century of our era, see Diels, _Elementum_, 1899, p. 73, cf. 78; Badstubner, _Beitrage zur Erklarung Senecas_, Hamburg, pp. 2 ff.--It is expressed in many inscriptions (Friedlander, _Sitteng._, III, pp. 749 ff.; Rohde, _Psyche_, p. 673, cf. 610; epitaph of Vezir-Keupru, _Studia Pontica_, No. 85; _CIL_. III (Salone), 6384; _supra_, n. 63, etc.) It gained access into Judaism and paganism simultaneously (cf. Bousset, _Die Religion des Judentums im neutest. Zeitalter_, 1903, p. 271, and, for Philo of Alexandria, Zeller, _Philos. der Griechen_, V, p. 397 and p.

297).--During the third century it was expounded by Cornelius Labeo, the source of Arn.o.bius and Servius (Nieggetiet, _De Cornelio Labeone_ [Diss.

Munster], 1908, pp. 77-86). It was generally accepted towards the end of the empire; see _infra_, n. 25.--I hope soon to have the opportunity of setting forth the development of this sidereal eschatology with greater precision in my lectures on "Astrology and Religion in Antiquity" which will appear in 1912 (chap. VI).

65. According to the doctrine of the Egyptian mysteries the Elysian Fields were in the under-world (Apul., _Metam._, XI, 6).--According to the astrological theory, the Elysian Fields were in the sphere of the fixed stars (Macrobius, _Comm. somn. Scip._, I, 11, -- 8; cf. _infra_, chap. VIII, n. 25). Others placed them in the moon (Servius, _Ad Aen._, VI, 887; cf.

Norden, _Vergils Buch_, VI, p. 23; Rohde, _Psyche_, pp. 609 ff.).

Iamblichus placed them between the moon and the sun (Lydus, _De mens._, IV, 149, p. 167, 23, Wunsch).

66. The relation between the two ideas is apparent in the alleged account of the Pythagorean doctrine which Diogenes Laertius took from Alexander Polyhistor, and which is in reality an apocryphal composition of the first century of our era. It was said that Hermes guided the pure souls, after their separation from the body, [Greek: eis ton Hupsiston] (Diog. Laert., VIII, -- 31; cf. Zeller, _Philos. der Griechen_, V, p. 106, n. 2).--On the meaning of Hypsistos, cf. _supra_, p. 128. It appears very plainly in the pa.s.sage of Isaiah, xiv, 13, as rendered by the Septuagint: {256}

[Greek: Eis ton ouranon anabesomai, epano ton asteron theso ton thronon mou ... esomai h.o.m.oios toi Hupsistoi.]

67. Originally he was the thunder-G.o.d, in Greek [Greek: Keraunos]. Under this name he appeared for instance on the bas-relief preserved in the museum of Brussels (Dussaud, _Notes_, p. 105). Later, by a familiar process, the influence of a particular G.o.d becomes the attribute of a greater divinity, and we speak of a [Greek: Zeus Keraunios] (cf. Usener, _Keraunos_, Rhein. Museum, N. F., LX, 1901).--This Zeus Keraunios appears in many inscriptions of Syria (_CIG_, 4501, 4520; Le Bas-Waddington, 2195, 2557 _a_, 2631, 2739; cf. Roscher, _Lexikon Myth._, s. v. "Keraunos").

He is the G.o.d to whom Seleucus sacrificed when founding Seleucia (Malalas, p. 199), and a dedication to the same G.o.d has been found recently in the temple of the Syrian divinities at Rome (_supra_, n. 10).--An equivalent of the Zeus Keraunios is the Zeus [Greek: Kataibates]--"he who descends in the lightning"--worshiped at Cyrrhus (Wroth, _Greek Coins in the British Museum_: "Galatia, Syria," p. 52 and LII; Roscher, _Lexikon_, s. v.)