These practical questions are so well presented, together with plans for their solution, in _Civic Biology_, by Clifton F. Hodge and Jean Dawson (Ginn & Co.), that instead of going into details here, both the _Girl Scouts_ and their Leaders are referred to this most useful work.

All objects of Nature are either living (organic) or non-living (inorganic). The non-living bodies include the minerals and rocks. The living bodies are either plants or animals. Plants may be divided into two great groups, the flowerless plants and flowering plants. In general the flowerless plants reproduce by means of spores, like the mushroom and the ferns, while the flowering plants reproduce by means of seeds.

[Ill.u.s.tration: ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT

This animal is really not a goat, but is more nearly related to the antelopes. Range: The higher mountains from Alaska south to California.

Group in American Museum of Natural History.]

Animals may be separated into two great groups, those without backbones (invertebrates) like an oyster, a cricket, or an earthworm, and those with backbones, e.g., a dog, a fish. In this brief study we shall not go into much detail about invertebrates, but with the backboned animals or vertebrates we shall go a little further. These may be divided into five general groups: (1) Fishes; (2) Amphibians, which include frogs, toads, and salamanders; (3) Reptiles, which include alligators, crocodiles, turtles, lizards, and snakes; (4) Birds; (5) Mammals.

This simple a.n.a.lysis may be clearly shown by the following diagram:

{_Mammals_ {_Birds_ {_Vertebrates_{_Reptiles_ { {_Amphibians_ { {_Fishes_ {_Animals_{ { {_Invertebrates_ {_Living Bodies_{ { (_Organic_) { {_Flowering Plants_ _Objects_{ { {_Flowerless Plants_ _of_ { _Nature_ {_Non-living Bodies_ { (_Inorganic_)

This cla.s.sification could be carried further at every point, but this will be far enough for present purposes. It should be remembered in any cla.s.sification that there are no hard and fast lines in Nature. For example, some creatures are on the border-land between plants and animals, and again some animals are between the backboned animals and those without backbones.

[Ill.u.s.tration: GREAT-LEAVED MAGNOLIA

A forest tree with large solitary white flowers. Range: Southern and Southeastern United States.]

2. Plants

Wild Flowers and Ferns

_Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies; Hold you here, root and all, in my hand.

Little flower--but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what G.o.d and man is._ --_Tennyson._

Do you know the earliest spring flower in your neighborhood? In the northern United States it is usually found in bloom before all the snow of winter is gone. In some swamp or along some stream where the snow has melted away in patches it is possible to find the Skunk Cabbage in bloom very early in the spring. See how early you can find it. In the southern United States, one of the earliest spring flowers is the yellow Jessamine, which twines over bushes and trees thus displaying its fragrant, golden bells.

[Ill.u.s.tration: TRAILING ARBUTUS

One of our earliest spring flowers, usually growing in patches in sandy or rocky woods. Range: Eastern United States westward to Michigan.

Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher.]

As the season advances, other flowers appear, and we find the Spring Beauty, the Trailing Arbutus, the Bloodroot, and the Hepatica. What delightful a.s.sociations each of these names brings to our minds! By the time summer is here we have an entirely different flower-population in the fields and woods--the Cardinal Flower with its intense red color and the Pink Lady's-Slipper with its drooping moccasin-shaped lip are to be found then. In the autumn we have a different group of flowers still--the Goldenrods, the Asters, and the Fringed Gentian, the season closing with our latest fall flower, the Witch-hazel.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PINK MOCCASIN-FLOWER

A striking native wild orchid growing in sandy or rocky woods. Range: Newfoundland to North Carolina westward to Minnesota. Photograph by G.

Clyde Fisher.]

Some flowers and ferns grow best in the shady woods, others in the sunny fields, some on the rocks and others in the marshes. We soon learn where to look for our favorites. In taking tramps along the roads, across the fields, through the woods, and into the swamps, we could notice along the roadside Bouncing-Bet, Common Yarrow, Dandelion, Thistles, and Goldenrod; in the fields and meadows, we would see the Ox-eye Daisy, Black-eyed Susan, Wild Carrot, and the most beautiful fall flower of the northeastern United States, the Fringed Gentian; in the woods, Mountain Laurel, Pink Azalea, a number of wild Orchids, Maidenhair Fern, and Jack-in-the Pulpit; in the marshes, Pink Rose-mallow, which reminds us of the Hollyhocks of our Grandmother's garden, Pickerel-weed, Water-lily, and Marsh Marigold.

It is natural to want to know the name of any plant that interests us, and this is important. As in the subjects of Birds, there are many helpful books on Flowers and Ferns. Beginners will find "The Flower Guide," by Chester A. Reed (Doubleday, Page & Co.) to be useful. After a good start has been made, such books as Gray's _Manual_, or Britton and Brown's _Ill.u.s.trated Flora_ should be used.

Our pursuit, however, should not stop with the name of a plant. That is a mere beginning. Even slight attention will uncover many fascinating things in the lives of plants. Why cannot a farmer raise a good crop of clover-seed without the b.u.mble-bees? What devices are there among the Orchids to bring about cross-pollination? (See "Our Native Orchids," by William Hamilton Gibson). Examine the flower of the wild Blue Flag, and see whether you can determine how the b.u.mble-bee cross-pollinates this plant. Do the Hummingbirds cross-pollinate some flowers? In what plants is the pollen scattered by the wind? Do these plants produce nectar?

[Ill.u.s.tration: GAILLARDIA OR BLANKET-FLOWER

Daisy family. Range: Hills and plains of western United States and Canada. Photograph by Albert E. Butler.]

How do the various plants scatter their seeds? How are the Hickory-nuts and Walnuts scattered? The Dandelion's and Thistle's seeds have flying-hairs or parachutes and are blown about by the wind. What other plants can you find whose seeds are scattered in the same way? Can you discover a plant whose seeds are carried by water? The Witch-hazel shoots its seeds. What other plants can you find that have explosive fruits? Cherry-seeds are carried by birds. Mention some other seeds that are carried in this way. It would take very little observation to learn how Burdock-burs, c.o.c.kle-burs, Stick-tights, Beggar-lice, Spanish-needles, and such hooked fruits are scattered.

[Ill.u.s.tration: BLACK-EYED SUSAN

A beautiful and abundant flower of the fields. Range: Eastern North America westward to the Rocky Mountains. Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher.]

Learn the names of the princ.i.p.al noxious weeds of the farm and garden, and also learn the best methods of combating them.

Learn to know the plants in your vicinity which are used in the making of drugs.

[Ill.u.s.tration: LOCO-WEED

A poisonous plant which produces loco-disease in cattle, sheep, and horses that eat it. Range: Plains from Montana to Colorado. Photograph by Albert E. Butler.]

Learn to know the poisonous plants around your home and summer camp. Are the following to be found there: Poison Ivy, Poison Sumach, Loco-weed, Bittersweet (_Salanum Dulcamara_), Black Nightshade, Jimsonweed, Poke-weed, Poison Hemlock?

[Ill.u.s.tration: SHOWY PRIMROSE

Not a true Primrose, but a member of the Evening Primrose Family. Range: Prairies of western United States and northern Mexico; also naturalized farther east. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. Leo E. Miller.]

Trees

_He who wanders widest lifts No more of beauty's jealous veils, Than he who from his doorway sees The miracle of flowers and trees._ --_Whittier_

The trees of the forest are of two cla.s.ses, deciduous trees and evergreen trees. To the former belong those which shed their leaves in the fall, are bare in the winter, and then grow a new crop of leaves in the spring, e.g., oaks, elms, maples. The evergreen trees shed their leaves also, but not all at one time. In fact, they always have a goodly number of leaves, and are consequently green all the year round, e.g., pines, spruces, firs.

[Ill.u.s.tration: RHODODENDRON OR GREAT LAUREL

A tall shrub, or sometimes a tree, growing in woods and along streams.

Range: Eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Photograph by Albert E. Butler.]

The uses of wood are so many and various that we can only begin to mention them. In looking about us we see wood used in building houses, in making furniture, for railroad ties, and for shoring timbers in mines. In many country districts wood is used for fuel. And do you realize that only a short time ago the newspaper which you read this morning and the book which you now hold in your hand were parts of growing trees in the forest? Paper is made of wood-pulp, mostly from Spruce.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CHRISTMAS FERN

An evergreen fern growing in woods and rocky places. Range: Eastern United States and Canada. Photograph by Mary C. d.i.c.kerson.]

Besides the direct uses of wood, we turn to the forest for many interesting and valuable products, varying in importance from a balsam-pillow filled with the fragrant leaves or needles of the Balsam Fir, to turpentine and rosin (naval stores), produced chiefly by the Long-leaved Pine of the Southeastern States. Spruce gum is obtained from the Black Spruce and Red Spruce. Canada balsam used in cementing lenses together in microscopes, telescopes, and the like, comes from the Balsam Fir. Bark for tanning comes from Oak and Hemlock. The Indians of the Eastern Woodlands or Great Lakes area made canoes and many other useful articles of the bark of the Canoe or Paper Birch. Baskets are made from Willow twigs. Maple sugar comes chiefly from the Sugar Maple.

[Ill.u.s.tration: IN A TURPENTINE GROVE

The long-leaved Pine furnishes most of the turpentine and rosin of commerce. Range: Virginia to Florida and Texas. Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher.]