(10) The chain of traditional sayings is continued here from chapter I, 14, with other maxims of Hillel. See _Introduction_, p. 17.

(11) _I.e._, share its weal and woe. Cf. _Taanit_, 11a, "He who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will never enjoy the divine blessing."

(12) One should constantly be on guard against oneself. The _Talmud_ (_Berachot_, 29a) ill.u.s.trates this saying by referring to a certain Jochanan, who, after having been high-priest for eighty years, became a heretic.

(13) This verse may be variously translated and interpreted.

Its translation here is in accordance with the interpretation of Maimonides. Do not express yourself in such a way that your words may be understood only after careful study and deep thought, but let them be clear and intelligible.

(14) The word [bur (bet-vov-resh)] means "uncultivated"

([sadeh bur] "an uncultivated field"). It is used of an ignorant, uncultured, mannerless person, possessing no moral or spiritual virtues. Taylor translates it by "boor." [am ha'aretz], literally "people of the land," "country people,"

is applied to an individual who may possess good manners, and may be literate, but who has no religious knowledge, nor training, nor does not observe religious customs. Taylor renders it "vulgar." Mayer Sulzberger maintains that this term was applied to an a.s.sembly of representatives of the people const.i.tuting a body similar to the modern Parliament, and divided into a lower and upper house. See his "_The Am Ha-aretz, The Ancient Hebrew Parliament._" On the _Am ha-aretz_ and his opposite the _chaber_, see Schurer, _History_, II, ii, pp. 8, 9 and pp. 22 _et seq._, also Herford, _ibid._ pp. 46-47.

(15) _I.e._, he who is ashamed to ask questions for fear of exposing his ignorance.

(16) He who has no patience to answer all the questions of his pupils.

(17) Cf. chapter IV, 12. One of the qualifications necessary for the acquirement of the _Torah_ is moderation in business.

(18) Do not boldly push yourself forward; but where there is no one to fill the position of teacher or leader, or to be the head of the community, and you have the qualifications, do not shrink from being the man.

(19) Retribution is sure. Cf. _Sanhedrin_, 100a and _Sotah_, 9b, "with what measure a man measures, is it measured unto him."

(20) Cf. Prov. III, 1 and 2.

(21) The expression "the world to come" may mean the Messianic days, the time after the Messianic era, the days after the resurrection or the spiritual hereafter. Maimonides discusses at length the various theories, in _Perek Chelek_ (Commentary on _Sanhedrin_, X, 1), which has been translated into English by J. Abelson, in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ (London), vol.

XXIX, p. 28 _et seq._ See also _The Hebrew Review_ (London, 1840), p. 254 _et seq._ Consult Schurer, _History_, II, ii, 92.

9. Rabban Jochanan, the son of Zakkai (22) received (the tradition) from Hillel and Shammai. He used to say, "If thou hast learnt much _Torah_, ascribe not any merit to thyself, for thereunto wast thou created."

(22) Rabban Jochanan ben Zakkai was known as the least of the disciples of Hillel. He was a contemporary of the historian Josephus. Escaping in a coffin from Jerusalem, when it was besieged by the Roman general Vespasian, and predicting the latter's elevation to the imperial dignity, Jochanan was allowed by Vespasian to go to Jabneh (Jamnia), where he founded the celebrated academy which became the centre of learning in Palestine, as Jerusalem had previously been. He was the most important scribe in the first decade after the destruction of the Temple (70 C.E.). See Strack, _Einleitung in den Talmud_, p. 86 _et seq._, Bacher, _Agada der Tanaiten_, pp. 25-46, Myers, _Story of the Jewish People_, I, pp.

151-160, and Danziger, _Jewish Forerunners of Christianity_, pp. 55-72.

10. Rabban Jochanan, the son of Zakkai, had five disciples (23), and these are they: Rabbi Eliezer, the son of Hyrca.n.u.s; Rabbi Joshua, the son of Hananiah (24); Rabbi Jose, the Priest; Rabbi Simeon, the son of Nataniel; and Rabbi Eleazar, the son of Arach. 11. He used thus to recount their praise: "Eliezer, the son of Hyrca.n.u.s, is a cemented cistern, which loses not a drop (25); Joshua, the son of Hananiah, happy is she that bare him (26); Jose, the Priest, is a pious man (27); Simeon, the son of Nataniel, is a fearer of sin; Eleazar, the son of Arach, is like a spring flowing with ever-sustained vigor"

(28). 12. He used to say, "If all the sages of Israel were in one scale of the balance, and Eliezer, the son of Hyrca.n.u.s, in the other, he would outweigh them all." Abba Saul (29) said in his name, "If all the sages of Israel were in one scale of the balance, and Eliezer, the son of Hyrca.n.u.s, also with them, and Eleazar, the son of Arach, in the other scale, he would outweigh them all." 13. He said to them, "Go forth and see which is the good way to which a man should cleave." R.

Eliezer said, "A good eye" (30); R. Joshua said, "A good friend"; R.

Jose said, "A good neighbor" (31); R. Simeon said, "One who foresees the fruit of an action" (32); R. Eleazar said, "A good heart."

Thereupon he said to them, "I approve of the words of Eleazar, the son of Arach, rather than your words, for in his words yours are included"

(33). 14. He said to them, "Go forth and see which is the evil way that a man should shun." R. Eliezer said, "An evil eye" (34); R.

Joshua said, "A bad friend"; R. Jose said, "A bad neighbor"; R. Simeon said, "One who borrows and does not repay--it is the same whether one borrows from man or the Omnipresent (35); as it is said, 'The wicked borroweth and payeth not again, but the righteous dealeth graciously and giveth'" (36); R. Eleazar said, "A bad heart." Thereupon he said to them, "I approve of the words of Eleazar, the son of Arach, rather then your words, for in his words yours are included."

(23) Of special excellence.

(24) On the life of R. Joshua (40-130 C.E.), see Bacher, _ibid._, 129-194, Myers, _ibid._, 161-170, Danziger, _ibid._, 122-151.

(25) He forgets nothing he has learned. On R. Eliezer, see Danziger, _ibid._, 91-121.

(26) When yet a child in the cradle, his mother took him into the synagogue that he might thus early hear the words of the _Torah_.

(27) A _chasid_ ([chasid]), "saint," is one who does more than the strict letter of the law requires. See Schechter, _Studies_, II, pp. 148-181, _idem_, _Aspects_, p. 209, Rawicz, _Commentar des Maimonides_, pp. 95-96, and Gorfinkle, _The Eight Chapters_, pp. 60-62.

(28) "A welling spring" (Taylor).

(29) He lived in the first half of the second century, C.E.

(30) _I.e._, an eye that looks upon people with benevolence and kind feelings, free from envy and ill-will.

(31) A good friend is one who induces his a.s.sociate to study _Torah_, and who reproves him when he sees him doing wrong.

The pa.s.sage means not so much to gain a good friend as to _be_ a good friend.

(32) One who balances the present against the future.

(33) The heart was considered the seat of all moral and spiritual functions. See Schechter, _Aspects_, p. 255 _et seq._

(34) Denotes n.i.g.g.ardliness, envy, or jealousy.

(35) _I.e._, one who lacks foresight and incurs responsibilities he is unable to meet borrows from G.o.d, as all wealth belongs to Him, and men are merely His stewards. The word [makom], literally "place," "s.p.a.ce," was used to designate Jerusalem, or the Temple, as being _the_ place where G.o.d's spirit dwells; or it may also refer to the divine court of the _Sanhedrin_. It then came to be used as an appellative for G.o.d. As Schechter remarks, "The term is mainly indicative of G.o.d's ubiquity in the world and can best be translated by 'Omnipresent.'" See Hoffmann, _Sanhedrin_ VI, note 56, Taylor, _Sayings_, p. 53, note 42, and Schechter, _Aspects_, pp. 26-27, where the literature on this subject is given. See also Friedlander, _The Jewish Religion_, p. 287, and the Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. _Names of G.o.d_.

(36) Psalm x.x.xVII, 21.

15. They each said three things. R. Eliezer said, "Let thy friend's honor be as dear to thee as thine own (37); be not easily excited to anger; and repent one day before thy death" (38). And (he further said), "Warm thyself by the fire of the wise, but beware of their glowing coals, lest thou be burnt, for their bite is the bite of the fox, and their sting is the scorpion's sting, and their hiss is the serpent's hiss, and all their words are like coals of fire" (39). 16.

R. Joshua said, "The evil eye, the evil inclination (40), and hatred of his fellow-creatures (41), put a man out of the world." 17. R.

Jose said, "Let the property of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own; prepare thyself for the study of _Torah_, since the knowledge of it is not an inheritance of thine, and let all thy deeds be done in the name of G.o.d" (42). 18. R. Simeon said, "Be careful in reading the _Shema_ (43) and the _Amidah_ (44); and when thou prayest, consider not thy prayer as a fixed (mechanical) task, but as (an appeal for) mercy and grace before the All-present, as it is said, 'For he is gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, and abounding in loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil' (45); and be not wicked in thine own esteem" (46). 19. R. Eleazar said, "Be diligent in studying _Torah_, and know what answer to give to the unbeliever (47); know also before whom thou toilest, and who thy Employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy labor."

(37) Cf. chapter IV, 15.

(38) Man should repent every day of his life, for he knows not on what day he may die (_Shabbat_, 153a).

(39) One who wishes to warm himself remains a certain distance away from the fire; if he approaches too near, he is burned; so, do not endeavor to become too intimate with the wise, as their opinion of you may change to your detriment. The "bite," the "sting," and the "hiss" represent the terribleness of the looks of the wise who have been angered.

(40) Pa.s.sion, evil nature, or evil inclination.

(41) Misanthropy.

(42) In making man's highest ideal the comprehension of G.o.d, Maimonides, in the _Shemonah Perakim_, supports his view by referring to the latter part of this verse. He says, "The sages of blessed memory, too, have summed up this idea in so few words and so concisely, at the same time elucidating the whole matter with such complete thoroughness, that when one considers the brevity with which they express this great and mighty thought in its entirety, about which others have written whole books and yet without adequately explaining it, one truly recognizes that the Rabbis undoubtedly spoke through divine inspiration. This saying is found among their precepts, and is, 'Let all thy deeds be done in the name of G.o.d.'" See Gorfinkle, _The Eight Chapters_, p. 73.

(43) This prayer consists of three portions of the Pentateuch (Deut. VI, 4-9; XI, 13-21; Num. XV, 37-41), and gets its name from the initial word of the first portion. It is appointed to be read twice daily, in the morning and in the evening. On the time when the _Shema_ is to be read, see _Berachot_ I, 1.

See Schurer, _History_, II, ii, 77, 83, _et seq._; Friedlander, _Jewish Religion_, pp. 430, 435; _Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. _Shema_, and Adler, in the _Jewish Review_ (London, 1910), vol. I, number 2, p. 159.

(44) An important part of the ritual said at the daily morning, afternoon, and evening service, and also at the additional service on Sabbaths and holy days, is known as (1) _Tefillah_ (prayer)_, or (2) _Shemoneh Esreh_ (eighteen), or (3) _Amidah_ (standing). It is known as _Tefillah_ because it is considered the prayer _par excellence;_ as _Shemoneh Esreh_ because originally it consisted of eighteen prayers (now nineteen); and as _Amidah_ (by Sephardic Jews) because it must be said standing. The _Shema_ and the _Shemoneh Esreh_ have been appropriately styled the "two pillars of the fabric of the liturgy." See Schurer, _ibid._; Friedlander, _ibid._, pp.

430, 437; in the _Jewish Encyclopedia, art. _Shemoneh Esreh_; Schechter, _Studies_, II, pp. 67068; Adler, _ibid._, p. 159; and Herford, _ibid._, pp. 298-299.

(45) Joel II, 13.

(46) Do not do what your conscience tells you is wrong, even though it does not appear to others as such; or, do not sin in secret, thinking that you will escape punishment because others do not see you.

(47) _Apikuros_ is a term originally used to designate a follower of the philosopher Epicurus, whose axiom was that "happiness or enjoyment is the _summum bonum_ of life."

Later, this word was used by the Rabbis to designate a free-thinker, a heretic, an unbeliever, or a despiser of the Law, Jewish or non-Jewish. Josephus (_Antiquities_, X, 11, 7, ed. Whiston-Margoliouth, p. 300) describes the Epicureans as those "who cast providence out of human life, and do not believe that G.o.d takes care of the affairs of the world, nor that the universe is governed and continued in being by that blessed and immortal nature, but say that the world is carried along of its own accord without a ruler and a curator."

Maimonides, in his commentary on _Sanhedrin_, X, 1, derives the word from the Hebrew, [hefkeir (hey-fey-kuf-resh)], "freedom," and defines it as one who refuses obedience to the Law. Schechter (_Studies in Judaism_, I, p. 158) says, "It implies rather a frivolous treatment of the words of Scripture and tradition." See the _Jewish Encyclopedia_ art.