So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out in lots, and sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for instance, in the United States; so long as the immigrant is unable to improve for himself his own plot of ground, but must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some foreign master, according to the iniquitous _Parceria_, or half-profits system;[49] so long as the expense of transport of the emigrant is to be worked off by future payments out of his labour, so long must every friend of humanity strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great South American Empire.

[Footnote 49: The modern Brazilian system of _Parceria_ may be shortly stated as that by which a planter engages in Europe such of the poorer cla.s.ses as are desirous of emigrating, and has them transported at his own cost to Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half profits, upon the coffee and sugar plantations, and contracting to reimburse him, by their personal services and labour, for the outlay he has been at for their transport, maintenance, instruction, &c. Until all these have been repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers of the land, they must remain, as working out their emanc.i.p.ation from the lord of the soil, veritable "_adscripti glebae_." After that has been attained they are free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into the rank of "unattached labourers," which implies their a.s.signing half of the net produce of the land to the ground landlord, the remaining half being their remuneration for labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria system can only exist where the soil is already exclusively vested in a planting aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p. 568).]

For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped natural wealth, two alternatives are alone open at present--either ruin to the producing power of the population through deficiency of industrial power, or the throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the most extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the more oppressively will the want of manual labour manifest itself; and the more advantages will foreign emigration secure.

Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded, the German emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the coasts of Brazil, where the glorious dawn of a magnificent future is surely breaking for them.

While, in the United States, the problem to be solved by the German emigrants seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and restless energy of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to a.s.similate with it,--on the other hand, in the South American continent, it appears as though the German element were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and German commerce, one of the fairest countries on the globe with the weapons of peace--the spade and plough.

Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely on account of the prospects she holds out for its overflowing population. A market, teeming with the most important colonial products, with an area[50] of 3,956,800 English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly 10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the attention and excite the most favourable antic.i.p.ations of a country such as Germany, the majority of whose inhabitants are engaged in manufactures.

[Footnote 50: According to the computation of the Historico-Geographical Inst.i.tute of Brazil.]

The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee, the production of which, in consequence of the great profit of late years derived from it, has increased so much, that it has superseded the cultivation of all other produce; thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for instance, potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the majority of the rural population being engaged in labour for the foreign market, and only very few for home consumption. This is the princ.i.p.al cause of the enormous prices which, even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio de Janeiro.

Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Santa Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently more than three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the whole earth, and of this the province of Rio de Janeiro alone yields two-thirds.

The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are sugar, rice, cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with dye and cabinet woods. The progressive decrease of late years in these articles may probably be ascribed to the want of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent to which the culture of coffee has been carried.

Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and its great importance, will form the object of a special work, we cannot help noticing in this place as a very interesting fact, that among the importations, that of wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above 300,000 barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two twentieths from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one twentieth from Lisbon and Valparaiso. The flour from Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and superior quality, commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being mixed in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it occasionally happens, that the best quality of the much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana flour reaches the price, altogether unapproachable by the finest American flour, of 64 to 66 shillings the barrel.

As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is that called Mandioca, prepared from the root of _Jatropha Manihot_, it follows that the chief consumer of wheaten flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption amounting to upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not so much in the deficient supplies of the articles required, as in the circ.u.mstance that the Austrian manufacturers have not hitherto found it much their interest to study the Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them suitable for that purpose. What little of our Austrian manufactures is at present exported for Brazilian consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead of proceeding from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen or Hamburg as fabrics of Northern Germany.

During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wullerstorf, accompanied by Captain Pock, and one of the members of the scientific commission, had the honour of being presented to the Emperor and Empress of Brazil, at a private audience. The reception took place at the winter residence of St.

Christoph. It is an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the central part especially having been for some years in a ruinous condition.

The Emperor seems not to be partial to display, and a very characteristic anecdote in this respect, which does him great credit, is very generally reported. On the occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that the inmates of the establishment were better and more elegantly lodged than himself. "It will always afford me great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."

At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the gentlemen of the Expedition were received by an ecclesiastic, who led them into an exceedingly plain ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose servants carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments with the Austrian minister, and entered the contiguous apartments. Chamberlains and domestics of the court looked stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared as rapidly as they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 P.M. the door opened, when His Majesty and the ministers walked through the room into the hall of audience, into which the gentlemen of the Expedition were soon afterwards conducted by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented each separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of an Austrian Archd.u.c.h.ess, and received the gentlemen in the uniform of an admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He is a fine-looking man, of some 30 years of age, of stately appearance, but with a voice somewhat too thin for so robust a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French; it is said, however, that the Emperor speaks German fluently. He conversed very affably and graciously with every one, and had something agreeable to say to each, expressing much interest in the _Novara_ Expedition. After several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our future voyage, and retired, upon which the audience was at an end.

After the members of the Expedition had remained a short s.p.a.ce in a corner of the audience chamber, they were conducted through a narrow boarded pa.s.sage to the apartments of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again encountered the Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock he usually wears.

We were now ushered into the small and very plainly furnished reception-room of the Empress, in which there was nothing to attract attention except a couple of highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a sister of the late King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria Christina of Spain, was in mourning owing to a death in the family. She was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received us with infinite grace. She is rather short in stature, and although still young, looks aged; in conversation she becomes however very animated, and thereby gains in gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she dwelt with childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its charming bay, of the Vesuvius, and the lovely walk of Santa Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice became involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical splendour, and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to have a great longing for her native land. Alas! even an imperial crown is no protection against the yearning for home!

During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the birth of our gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the most festive manner. From early dawn the frigate appeared decked out in her gayest flags, which was similarly responded to by the English and French ships of war in the harbour. At 8 A.M., with the customary salutes of the ensign, a salute of twenty-one guns was fired, as also at mid-day and sunset. At 11 A.M., the crew were paraded and divine service was performed, to which our resident envoy and his family were invited, together with the acting Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few Austrians who happened to be at that time in Rio. After service, the foreign guests and several officers of the staff were entertained by the commodore at breakfast. In the evening there was a banquet at the hotel of the envoy, at which were present several notabilities of the empire of Brazil, among others, Viscount Maranguape, minister of foreign affairs, and the Senator Viscount de Uruguay. In the garden of the club the frigate's band of music played chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the bosoms of many the most tender recollections.

The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives rise to an almost continual firing; each vessel entering fires a royal salute, which is answered by the fortress and the other ships of war in the harbour.

During our stay we discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men of war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within three weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in salutes.

The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our departure. During the latter days of our stay, there had been frequent collations on board to make some return to those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick, one midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in hospital, where they received the most careful treatment, while Dr. Ave Robert Lallemant, who, by the kind recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of surgeon of corvette, for the purpose of prosecuting his studies of yellow fever, was, at his own request, put ash.o.r.e at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey through Southern Brazil already alluded to.

The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat sent on sh.o.r.e to bring back some officers. The system of kidnapping, as is well known, flourishes in Rio, and many a ship is said to have lost, in this way, from thirty to forty men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of all imaginable allurements and promises, making advances in money, and leading them into a dissolute life, in order that, when afterwards they find themselves in a desperate state, and without resources, they may be sold by the scoundrels to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what is worse, as white slaves, to the planters in the interior. This abominable trade is said to be carried on, on a great scale, by an Italian, in Catumb Grande, and though the Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop to the nuisance.

These incidents did not, however, interfere with our departure at the specified hour, when we were towed out by the tug steamer _Perseverancia_, which we had hired for _25_. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is towed clear of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the islands, or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which belongs to a private individual, and accompanied us eastward as far as the island of Razza, must be a source of considerable profit.

On 31st August, at six A.M., we bade farewell to the splendid harbour of Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio after the visit of the yellow fever, but the almost continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and deprived us of the opportunity of more closely examining the environs of the city. Nor were we more successful in making ourselves at home here, notwithstanding the kind reception with which we were favoured by the Government and some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to scientific pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the great majority of the Brazilian population. Of course there are numerous and agreeable exceptions; but slavery, the mixture of races, the egotism and indolence of the wealthier cla.s.ses, are all reasons why a European, just arrived, cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear, in some respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but they are deficient in their pleasing, insinuating demeanour, in their cheerful humour, quickness of perception, and lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem almost incapable of persevering activity. This perceptible deficiency of hearty, energetic temperament, in addition to the confused intermingling of other foreign nations, which seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so soon as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new arrival a feeling of depression, which, so far from being weakened, is yet more keenly felt by those who have lived some time in the country, so that not merely among foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these sh.o.r.es becomes rather increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE III.--FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.]

At nine A.M., we cast off from the tug, not far from the little island of Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our sails to the breeze, which gradually freshened, but blew from the N.E., which was foul for our course. However, we could still derive some advantage from even this as it was our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able to make almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape of Good Hope, after we should have got further south than the Antarctic limit of the S.E.

trades.

The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern hemisphere, the approximation of the sun towards the south pole, and the consequent tendency of the zones of wind and currents of air to pursue the same direction, gave us reason to hope, that when approaching the limits of the trades, we should find a change of wind, which should shorten the voyage, or at all events keep us clear of storms.

In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary conformations of land to break the uniformity of the earth's surface, and where the expanse of water is unbroken by any extensive group of islands, the disturbances in the atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less strongly marked than where continents are interposed, or in the narrow seas. The winds themselves, under such circ.u.mstances, display even in their shifts a certain amount of regularity, which is usually dependent upon the universal laws of nature.

Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in all their extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it becomes a mere question of the study of local conditions in order to be able to declare how these universal laws operate, and to elucidate by the most simple explanations many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its direction, there must necessarily be, certain active causes for its doing so; if these causes perpetually recur in well-marked periodical intervals, the change of the wind must follow a definite law. Under certain circ.u.mstances the direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at certain seasons in the open ocean it remains always the same, or changes with a certain regularity, whence it becomes apparent that the causes must remain unchanging, and the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of explanation.

We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes--those most terrific exemplifications of the tendency of the atmosphere to move in circles--the wind does not blow in straight lines, but rather in curves described round a central point, which again is not immovable, but has a regular progression along a definite curve. In that curved plane, however, which has been termed a _cyclone_, the wind always blows in one and the same direction, and in the Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the contrary, follows that motion.

These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena, it follows as a natural consequence of the general principles laid down, that they hold good in minor cases, and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.

So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be found subject to a variation in direction of a similar nature, such as may not perhaps be fully exemplified in every case, but simply serve to indicate the tendency of the wind to follow the same general direction as the hurricanes themselves.

The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the direction of the winds will be especially manifest at the limits within which the regular winds prevail, and when they must necessarily become intermingled with other regular currents of the atmosphere.

Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades, which always extend somewhat further south, as the sun's southern declination increases, we had to traverse regions where necessarily we encountered variable winds, owing to the increased area of the Trades. There are also found occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems to fill the surrounding s.p.a.ce, when there is seen a similar process to that in the case of hurricanes, first visible perhaps in the higher strata, but afterwards extending to those which are lower.

The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them the atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones, except that neither the wind nor the sea ever presented the characteristics of a tempest. The wind, which began to blow from the North-East, drew gradually to North, thence West and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's log, that the entire cycle was completed in five or six days; so that it became quite possible, by examining the central direction of the daily variation, to foretell the wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon taking into consideration the path described by such central direction from day to day, it appeared that the wind described very nearly a parabolic curve.

Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the weather, were only one degree less regular in their alternations than the hurricanes. With the S.E. wind, the sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round, towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds began to appear in the western heavens, const.i.tuting a well-marked division of the vault of the sky from one side quite to the other. As it drew still further round, and neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving scud covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid rainbows were seen, till the ship had reached the nearest spot to the storm-centre when there were sharp squalls of wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower strata of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those above moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that of the forthcoming wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at first would be considerable, gradually decreased as we approached the central line; as we drew away from that centre the barometer rose again, the weather improved, and the sky under the influence of southerly winds once more cleared.

Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to ascertain whether the veering of the wind follows an exact curve, as we can only say what is the direction at the spot where the observation has been made, and it is impossible to determine what it may be at other points. But it is at all events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the same general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out for the special purpose of this branch of investigation, could render immense services to science and navigation, and achieve most interesting results.

We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the ocean as speedily as possible, in order to reach early our next anchorage, and in so doing we experienced altogether three well-marked cycles of wind at short intervals. We cannot afford s.p.a.ce to prosecute all the interesting consequences that result from these phenomena of nature, such investigations being more properly reserved for the meteorological section of the scientific portion of this work. Here, however, the facilities for observation of a sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation and commerce.

And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it uninteresting, that even that proverbially fickle element, air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more accurate acquaintance with which must be of the utmost importance to the denizen of _terra firma_, as well as those "that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters."

On this pa.s.sage from the American to the African coasts, we were continually accompanied by our winged friends, the sea-birds, which, notwithstanding the unkind treatment they received at the hands of the zoological sportsmen, followed us with the utmost pertinacity, probably attracted by the numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.

The Cape pigeons (_Procellaria sp._), those prettily-marked sea-birds, about the size of doves, the albatrosses, (_Diomedea sp._) the largest of the ocean feathered tribe, with their quiet majestic flight, stormy petrels of all sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest of its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface followed the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to weary in their active search for food.

Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water, and were left far behind; but they collected again with great rapidity as soon as anything eatable appeared, and overtook the frigate in a swift flight from the remotest point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very probably arises from their being accustomed to follow whalers, from which such a large quant.i.ty of garbage is thrown overboard, very much affected by these aerial parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels their favourite food.

They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact time when they are likely to receive a large quant.i.ty of eatables from on board.

Every day, about noon, the vicinity of the ship became animated, and towards one o'clock, after the crew had finished dinner, these lively creatures were close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst them was the Cape pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost avidity, upon the dainty morsels thrown overboard, raising a loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving for sinking fragments, or s.n.a.t.c.hing from each other those they had secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white albatrosses. As soon as one of these colossal birds appeared on the scene of strife, the uproar of the screaming pigeons at once became still; they kept themselves at a respectful distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater numbers of these a.s.sembled, of which the black ones (_Ph[oe]betria fuliginosa_), like the large petrels, are extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within gun-shot. The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black rings round the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with these were several small Mother Carey's Chickens, and flights of other winged creatures swarming over the sea. The darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more actively do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it appears that in rough stormy weather they see less distinctly and find food with difficulty, in consequence of which they are in a famished state. Only under these circ.u.mstances, and when the ship is moving slowly, can they be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather odd to the reader, and yet it is common enough in the Southern Ocean, amusing the sailor, and providing the zoologist with means of obtaining these birds alive. For this purpose, however, circ.u.mstances must be comparatively favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the sea agitated, and the ship making but little headway. When the sky is serene, and the sea calm, even the Cape pigeons do not think it worth their while to throw a glance at the bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship outspeeds them.

The line, moreover, must be of tolerable length, so as, in the event of any bird evincing a desire to snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is necessary to leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly after sunset, that these birds, continually following in the wake of the ship, do not see the line, strike against it, and entangle themselves so that they may be easily drawn on board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught, makes it betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that it has been captured.

For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a stronger hook, which it is best to attach to a copper wire, because this being thinner than line, is not so readily perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may swim on the surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.

When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a man is requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its despair, dives and keeps its wings spread under water, so that the resistance is very considerable, and frequently even the strongest lines are broken. This cannot be wondered at when their size is considered, as they measure from 10 to 14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight amounts to from 10 to 18 lbs.

Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly away; they move very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can only rise after a slanting spring, which, however, they cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the water these birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they flutter their outspread wings for a little, and use their webbed feet in a kind of rowing motion, in order to acquire the requisite impetus. The albatross defends itself with its bill, which is often four to five inches long, and care must be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being captured, vomited up a slimy greasy substance.

The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us much amus.e.m.e.nt.

Many were knocked over with the fowling-piece, especially when, in their inquisitiveness, they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate of progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to our collection of objects of natural history.

In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a distance of 15 or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the feathers and the down of the bird. What is most remarkable as regards these birds is the numerous parasites that live upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how certain of these birds (as for instance, the _Puffins_ and _Procellariae_) are infested by insects, their plumage sometimes swarming with small specimens of _Crustaceae_.

On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the Cape was visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a distance of fourteen miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table Bay.

The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly past, and we were still able vividly to recall the impressions made by Brazil, and the scenes we had gone through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of Africa came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes and our thoughts were directed to another quarter of the globe. On the one hand, excited with the prospect of new scenery, and on the other, anxious to complete our elaborate observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send them home from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which kept us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to admire the remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at the present season, think it advisable to run right into the bay, so as to anchor near Cape Town, but resolved to double the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the usual anchorage for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind freshened so much that on the 27th it had become a gale, which forced us out to sea again.