[Footnote 190: P. 271.]

[Footnote 191: P. 271.]

[Footnote 192: xxi. 113.]

[Footnote 193: P. 271.]

[Footnote 194: Daubuisson estimated the depth in question at from 46 to 61 feet, while Kupffer put it at 77 feet.]

[Footnote 195: De Saussure found a variation of 225 F. at a depth of 295 feet; but this was in a well, where the influence of the atmosphere was allowed to have effect. Naturally, the fissures which there may be in the rock surrounding a cave will increase the annual variation of temperature, by affording means of easier penetration to the heat and cold.

Sir K. Murchison's cavern in Russia would seem to be entirely _sui generis_.]

CHAPTER XVIII.

ON THE PRISMATIC STRUCTURE OF THE ICE IN GLACIeRES.

It was natural to suppose that the prismatic structure which I found so very general in the glacieres was the result of some cause or causes coming into operation after the first formation of the ice. On this point M. Thury's visit to the Glaciere of S. Georges in the spring of 1852 affords valuable information, for at that time the coating of ice on the wall, evidently newly formed, did not present the _structure areolaire_ which he had observed in his summer visit to the cave. He suggests that, since ice is less coherent at a temperature of 32 F.--which is approximately the temperature of the ice-caves during several months of the year--than when exposed to a greater degree of cold, its molecules will then become free to a.s.sume a fresh system of arrangement.[196] On the other hand, Professor Faraday has found that ice formed under a temperature some degrees below the ordinary freezing point has a well-marked crystalline structure.[197] M. Thury suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case, by frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of resisting heat than ordinary ice; and on this supposition he accounts for the fact of hollow stalact.i.tes being found in the Cavern of S. Georges.[198] At the commencement of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of the glacieres rises gradually; and when it has almost reached 32 F., the prismatic change takes place in the ice, extending to a limited depth below the surface. The central parts of the stalact.i.tes retain their ordinary structure, and are after a time exposed to a general temperature rather above than below the freezing point; and thus they come to melt, the water escaping either by accidental fissures between some of the prisms, or by the extremity of the stalact.i.te, or by some part of the surface which has chanced to escape the prismatic arrangement, and has itself melted under increased temperature.[199]

M. Hericart de Thury describes the peculiar structure of the ice which he found in the Glaciere of the Foire de Fondeurle.[200] He found that the crystallised portions were very distinctly marked, displaying for the most part a six-sided arrangement; and in the interior of a hollow stalact.i.te he found numerous needles of ice perfectly crystallised, the crystals being some triangular and some six-sided. He was unable to detect any perfect pyramid.[201] I have already quoted Olafsen's observations on the polygonal lining which he saw on the surface of the ice in the Surtsh.e.l.lir. The French Encyclopaedia [202] relates that M.

Ha.s.senfratz saw ice served up at table at Chambery which broke into hexagonal prisms; and when he was shown the ice-houses where it was stored, he found considerable blocks of ice containing hexahedral prisms terminated by corresponding pyramids.

In vol. xv. (New Series) of the American Journal of Science,[203] an extract is given from a letter describing the 'Ice Spring' in the Rocky Mountains, which the mountaineers consider to be one of the curiosities of the great trail from the States to Oregon and California. It is situated in a low marshy 'swale' to the right of the Sweet.w.a.ter river, and about forty miles from the South Pa.s.s. The ground is filled with springs; and about 18 inches below the turf lies a smooth and horizontal sheet of ice, which remains the year round, protected by the soil and gra.s.s above it. On July 12th, 1849, it was from 2 to 4 inches thick; but one of the guides stated that he had seen it a foot deep. It was perfectly clear, and disposed in hexagonal prisms, separating readily at the natural joints. The ice had a slightly saline taste,[204] the ground above it being impregnated with salt, and the water near tasting of sulphur. The upper surface of the stratum of ice was perfectly smooth.

In Poggendorff's _Annalen_ (1841, Erganzsband, 517-19,--Boue, an old offender in that way, says 1842) there is an account of ice being found in the Westerwald, near the village of Frickhofen at the foot of the _Dornburg_, among basaltic debris about 500 feet above the sea.[205] Commencing at a depth of 2 feet below the surface, the ice reaches from 20 to 22 feet farther down, where the loose stones give place to dry sand. The ice is in thin layers on the stones, and is deposited in the form of clear and regular hexagonal crystals. The lateral extent through which this phenomenon obtains is from 40 to 50 feet each way, and is greater in winter than in summer. As in other cases that have been noticed in basaltic debris, the snow which falls upon the surface here is speedily melted. The _Allgemeine Zeitung_ (1840, No. 309), from which the account in Poggendorff is taken, suggested that the melted snow-water which would thus run down among the interstices would readily freeze below the surface, while the heavy cold air of winter would be stored up at the lower levels, and the poor conducting powers of basaltic rock[206] would favour its permanence through the summer. The temperature of the cold current which was perceptible in the parts of the ma.s.s of debris where the ice existed was 1 R. (3425 F.). Nothing but a few lichens grow on the surface of the debris.

These are, I think, all the references I have met with to the prismatic structure of subterranean ice. But there is an interesting account in Poggendorff 's _Annalen_,[207] by a private teacher in Jena, of the crystalline appearance of ice under slow thaw near that town. In the winter of 1840, the Saale was frozen, and the ice remained unbroken till the middle of January, when the thermometer rose suddenly, and the river in consequence overflowed the lower grounds, and carried large ma.s.ses of ice on to the fields, where it was left when the water subsided. On the 20th of January the thermometer fell again, and remained below the freezing point till the 12th of February: some of the ice did not disappear till the following month.

When the ice had lain a short time, cracks appeared on the surface exposed to the sun, and spread like a network from the edges towards the centre of the surface. At first there was no regularity in the connection of these lines, and the several meshes were of very different sizes. After a time, the larger meshes split up into smaller, and the system of network was found to penetrate below the surface, the cracks deepening into furrows, which descended perpendicularly from the surface, and divided the ice into long thin rhomboidal pillars. The surface-end of some of these pillars was strongly marked with right lines parallel to one of the sides of the mesh, and it was found that there was a tendency in the ice to split down planes through these lines and parallel to the corresponding side-plane. Parallel to the original surface of the ma.s.s of ice, the pillars broke off evenly. The side-planes had a rounded, wrinkled appearance; and their mutual inclinations--as far as could be determined--were from 105 to 115, and from 66 to 75. When these ice-pillars were examined by means of polarised light, they were found to possess a feeble double-refracting power.

The writer of the article in Poggendorff suggests a question which he was not sure how to answer:--Is this appearance in correspondence with the original formation of the ice, or does it only appear under slow thaw?

It is worthy of remark, that from the 1st to the 11th of February the thermometer was never higher than 228 F., and during that time fell as low as 21 below zero, i.e. 43 below the freezing point.

Professor Tyndall has informed me that in the winters of 1849, 1850, 1851, he found the banks of a river in Germany loaded with ma.s.sive layers of drift-ice, in a state of thaw, and was struck by the fact that every layer displayed the prismatic structure described above, the axes of the prisms being at right angles to the surfaces of freezing. It may be, he adds, that this structure is in the first place determined by the act of freezing, but it does not develop itself until the ice thaws.

M. Ha.s.senfratz observed an appearance in ice on the Danube at Vienna[208] corresponding to that described at Jena. He gives no information as to the state of the weather or the temperature at the time, nor any of the circ.u.mstances under which the ice came under his notice. One of the ma.s.ses of ice which he describes was crystallised in prisms of various numbers of sides: of these prisms the greater part were hexahedral and irregular. Another ma.s.s was composed of prisms in the form of truncated pyramids; and in another he found quadrilateral and octahedral prisms, the former splitting parallel to the faces, and also truncated pyramids with five and six sides. He adds, that he had frequently seen in the upper valleys tufts of ice growing, as it were, out of the ground, and striated externally, but had never succeeded in discovering any internal organisation, until one evening in a time of thaw, when he found by means of a microscope that the striated tufts of ice had a.s.sumed the same structure on a small scale as that which he had observed on the Danube.

A Frenchman who was present in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British a.s.sociation met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the rhomboidal form a.s.sumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits of mud left by the coprolite-workers near Cambridge offer, of course on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes of its a.s.suming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause.[209]

Professor Tyndall found, in the course of his experiments on the discs and flowers produced in the interior of a ma.s.s of ice by sending a warm ray through the ma.s.s, that the pieces of ice were in some cases traversed by hazy surfaces of discontinuity, which divided the apparently continuous ma.s.s into irregular prismatic segments. The intersections of the bounding surfaces of these segments with the surface of the slab of ice formed a very irregular network of lines.[210] I am inclined, however, to think that the irregularity in these cases proved to be so much greater than that observed in the glacieres, that this interior prismatic subdivision must be referred to some different cause.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 196: The continued extrication of latent heat by ice, as it is cooled a few degrees below 32 F., appears to indicate a molecular change subsequent to the first freezing.--_Phil. Trans._, as quoted in the next note.]

[Footnote 197: See the paper 'On Liquid Diffusion as applied to a.n.a.lysis,' by the Master of the Mint (_Phil. Trans._ 1861, p. 222).]

[Footnote 198: Compare the description of one of the hollow stalagmites I explored in the Schafloch, p. 145.]

[Footnote 199: Professor Tyndall has pointed out that, owing to the want of perfect h.o.m.ogeneity, some parts of a block of ice exposed to a temperature of 32 F. will melt, while others remain solid _(Phil.

Trans_. 1858, p. 214). He also arrived at the conclusion (p. 219) that heat could be conducted through the substance of a ma.s.s, and melt portions of the interior, without visible prejudice to the solidity of the other parts of the ma.s.s.]

[Footnote 200: _Journal des Mines_, x.x.xiii. 157. See also an English translation of his account in the second volume of the _Edinburgh Journal of Science_.]

[Footnote 201: It is to be hoped that the accuracy of his scientific descriptions exceeds that of his topographical information; for he states that the glaciere is two leagues from Valence, whereas it cost me six hours' drive on a level road, and five and a half hours' walking and climbing, to reach it from that town.]

[Footnote 202: Branch _Physique_, article _Glace_]

[Footnote 203: P. 146 (an. 1853).]

[Footnote 204: Dr. Lister experimented on sea-water in December 1684 (_Ph. Trans_, xiv. 836), and found that though it took two nights to freeze, it was much harder when once frozen than common ice, lasting for three-quarters of an hour under a heat which melted 100 times its bulk of common ice at once. It was marked with oblong squares, and had a salt taste. Ice formed from water with an admixture of sulphuric acid is said to a.s.sume a crystalline appearance.]

[Footnote 205: See also a pamphlet ent.i.tled _Das unterirdische Eisfeld bei der Dornburg am Sudlichen Fusse des Westerwaldes_, by Thoma of Wiesbaden (32 pages, with a map of the district), published in 1841.]

[Footnote 206: But see page 262.]

[Footnote 207: lv. (an 1842), 472.]

[Footnote 208: _Journal de Physique_, xxvi. (an 1785), 34.]

[Footnote 209: In looking through some early volumes of the _Philosophical Transactions_, I found an 'Extract of a letter written by Mr. Muraltus of Zurich (September 1668), concerning the Icy and Chrystallin Mountains of Helvetia, called the Gletscher, English'd out of Latin' (_Phil. Trans._ iv. 982), which at first looked something like an a.s.sertion of the prismatic structure of ice on a large scale. The English version is as follows:--'The snow melted by the heat of the summer, other snow being faln within a little while after, and hardened into ice, which by little and little in a long tract of time depurating itself turns into a stone, not yielding in hardness and clearness to chrystall. Such stones closely joyned and compacted together compose a whole mountain, and that a very firm one; though in summer-time the country-people have observed it to burst asunder with great cracking, thunder-like.']

[Footnote 210: See the woodcut ill.u.s.trating Professor Tyndall's remarks in the 148th volume of the _Philosophical Transactions_ (1858, p. 214).]

CHAPTER XIX.

ON THE MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE REGIONS IN WHICH THE GLACIeRES OCCUR.

Many interesting experiments have for long been carried on with a view to determine the mean temperature at various depths below the surface of the earth. The construction of Artesian wells has afforded useful opportunities for increasing the amount of our knowledge on this subject; and the well at Pregny, near Geneva,[211] and the Monk Wearmouth coal-mines, as observed by Professor Phillips while a fresh shaft was being sunk,[212] have supplied most valuable facts. Without entering into any detail, which would be an unnecessary trouble, it may be stated generally, that, under ordinary circ.u.mstances, 1 F. of temperature is gained for every 50 or 60 feet of vertical descent into the interior of the earth. I have only met with one account of an experiment made in a horizontal direction, and it is curious that the law of the increase of temperature then observed seemed to be very much the same as that determined by the mean of the vertical observations. Boussingault[213]

found several horizontal adits in a precipitous face of porphyritic syenite among the mountains of Marmato. In one of these adits--a gallery called Cruzada, at an elevation of 1,460 metres--he found an increase of 1 C. of mean temperature for every 33 metres of horizontal penetration, or, approximately, 1 F. for 60 feet.[214]

Again, observations have been made, in various lat.i.tudes, of the decrease of temperature consequent upon gradual rising from the general surface of the earth; as, for instance, in the ascent of mountains.