The Norman kings, desirous of strengthening their work, constructed Gothic cathedrals in the room of wooden churches, in which they installed their soldier-bishops, as if they were strong fortresses.

Instead of the moral power and the humble crook of the shepherd, they gave them secular power and a staff. The religious episcopate was succeeded by a political one. William Rufus went even to greater lengths than his father. Taking advantage of the schism which divided the papacy, he did without a pope for ten years, leaving abbeys, bishoprics, and even Canterbury vacant, and scandalously squandering their revenues. Caesaropapia (which transforms a king into a pope) having thus attained its greatest excess, a sacerdotal reaction could not fail to take place.

The papacy is about to rise up again in England, and royalty to decline--two movements which are always found combined in Great Britain.

CHAPTER V.

Anselm's Firmness--Becket's Austerity--The King scourged--John becomes the Pope's Va.s.sal--Collision between Popery and Liberty--The Va.s.sal King ravages his Kingdom--Religion of the Senses and Superst.i.tion.

We are now entering upon a new phase of history. Romanism is on the point of triumphing by the exertions of learned men, energetic prelates, and princes in whom extreme imprudence was joined with extreme servility. This is the era of the dominion of popery, and we shall see it unscrupulously employing the despotism by which it is characterized.

[Sidenote: ANSELM.]

A malady having occasioned some degree of remorse in the king, he consented to fill up the vacancy in the archiepiscopal see. And now Anselm first appears in England. He was born in an Alpine valley, at the town of Aosta in Piedmont. Imbibing the instructions of his pious mother Ermenberga, and believing that G.o.d's throne was placed on the summit of the gigantic mountains he saw rising around him, the child Anselm climbed them in his dreams, and received the bread of heaven from the hands of the Lord. Unhappily in after-years he recognised another throne in the church of Christ, and bowed his head before the chair of St. Peter. This was the man whom William II. summoned in 1093 to fill the primacy of Canterbury. Anselm, who was then sixty years old, and engaged in teaching at Bec, refused at first: the character of Rufus terrified him. "The church of England," said he, "is a plough that ought to be drawn by two oxen of equal strength. How can you yoke together an old and timid sheep like me and that wild bull?" At length he accepted, and concealing a mind of great power under an appearance of humility, he had hardly arrived in England before he recognised Pope Urban II., demanded the estates of his see which the treasury had seized upon, refused to pay the king the sums he demanded, contested the right of invest.i.ture against Henry I., forbade all ecclesiastics to take the feudal oath, and determined that the priests should forthwith put away their wives. Scholasticism, of which Anselm was the first representative, freed the church from the yoke of royalty, but only to chain it to the papal chair. The fetters were about to be riveted by a still more energetic hand; and what this great theologian had begun, a great worldling was to carry on.

At the hunting parties of Henry II. a man attracted the attention of his sovereign by his air of frankness, agreeable manners, witty conversation, and exuberant vivacity. This was Thomas Becket, the son of an Anglo-Saxon and a Syrian woman. Being both priest and soldier, he was appointed at the same time by the king prebend of Hastings and governor of the Tower. When nominated chancellor of England, he showed himself no less expert than Wilfrid in misappropriating the wealth of the minors in his charge, and of the abbeys and bishoprics, and indulged in the most extravagant luxury. Henry, the first of the Plantagenets, a man of undecided character, having noticed Becket's zeal in upholding the prerogatives of the crown, appointed him archbishop of Canterbury. "Now, sire," remarked the primate, with a smile, "when I shall have to choose between G.o.d's favour and yours, remember it is yours that I shall sacrifice."

[Sidenote: BECKET OPPOSES THE KING.]

Becket, who, as keeper of the seals, had been the most magnificent of courtiers, affected as archbishop to be the most venerable of saints.

He sent back the seals to the king, a.s.sumed the robe of a monk, wore sackcloth filled with vermin, lived on the plainest food, every day knelt down to wash the feet of the poor, paced the cloisters of his cathedral with tearful eyes, and spent hours in prayer before the altar. As champion of the priests, even in their crimes, he took under his protection one who to the crime of seduction had added the murder of his victim's father.

The judges having represented to Henry that during the first eight years of his reign a hundred murders had been committed by ecclesiastics, the king in 1164 summoned a council at Clarendon, in which certain regulations or _const.i.tutions_ were drawn up, with the object of preventing the encroachments of the hierarchy. Becket at first refused to sign them, but at length consented, and then withdrew into solitary retirement to mourn over his fault. Pope Alexander III released him from his oath; and then began a fierce and long struggle between the king and the primate. Four knights of the court, catching up a hasty expression of their master's, barbarously murdered the archbishop at the foot of the altar in his own cathedral church (A. D.

1170). The people looked upon Becket as a saint: immense crowds came to pray at his tomb, at which many _miracles_ were worked.[130] "Even from his grave," said Becket's partizans, "he renders his testimony in behalf of the papacy."

[130] In loco pa.s.sionis et ubi sepultus est, paralytici curantur, cci vident, surdi audiunt. (Johan. Salisb. Epp. 286.) In the place of his suffering and where he was buried, paralytics are cured, the blind see, and the deaf hear.

Henry now pa.s.sed from one extreme to the other. He entered Canterbury barefooted, and prostrated himself before the martyr's tomb: the bishops, priests, and monks, to the number of eighty, pa.s.sed before him, each bearing a scourge, and struck three or five blows according to their rank on the naked shoulders of the king. In former ages, so the priestly fable ran, Saint Peter had scourged an archbishop of Canterbury: now Rome in sober reality scourges the back of royalty, and nothing can henceforward check her victorious career. A Plantagenet surrendered England to the pope, and the pope gave him authority to subdue Ireland.[131]

[131] Significasti si quidem n.o.bis, fili carissime, te Hiberniae insulam ad subdendum illum populum velle intrare, nos itaque gratum et acceptum habemus ut pro dilatandis ecclesiae terminis insulam ingrediaris. (Adrian IV., Bulla 1154 in Rymer, Acta Publica.) If indeed you have intimated, dear son, that you wish to invade Ireland to subdue that people, we are accordingly well pleased, that for the purpose of extending the bounds of the church, you should invade that island.

[Sidenote: THE GREAT CHARTER.]

Rome, who had set her foot on the neck of a king, was destined under one of the sons of Henry II to set it on the neck of England. John being unwilling to acknowledge an archbishop of Canterbury illegally nominated by Pope Innocent III, the latter, more daring than Hildebrand, laid the kingdom under an interdict. Upon this John ordered all the prelates and abbots to leave England, and sent a monk to Spain as amba.s.sador to Mahomet-el-Nasir, offering to turn Mahometan and to become his va.s.sal. But as Philip Augustus was preparing to dethrone him, John made up his mind to become a va.s.sal of Innocent, and not of Mahomet--which was about the same thing to him. On the 15th May 1213, he laid his crown at the legate's feet, declared that he surrendered his kingdom of England to the pope, and made oath to him as to his lord paramount.[132]

[132] Resignavit coronam suam in ma.n.u.s domini papae. Matth. Paris, 198 et 207.

A national protest then boldly claimed the ancient liberties of the people. Forty-five barons armed in complete mail, and mounted on their n.o.ble war-horses, surrounded by their knights and servants and about two thousand soldiers, met at Brackley during the festival of Easter in 1215, and sent a deputation to Oxford, where the court then resided. "Here," said they to the king, "is the charter which consecrates the liberties confirmed by Henry II, and which you also have solemnly sworn to observe."... "Why do they not demand my crown also?" said the king in a furious pa.s.sion, and then with an oath,[133]

he added: "I will not grant them liberties which will make me a slave." This is the usual language of weak and absolute kings. Neither would the nation submit to be enslaved. The barons occupied London, and on the 15th June 1215, the king signed the famous _Magna Charta_ at Runnymede. The political protestantism of the thirteenth century would have done but little, however, for the greatness of the nation, without the religious protestantism of the sixteenth.

[133] c.u.m juramento furibunds. Ibid. 213.

[Sidenote: POPERY AND LIBERTY IN COLLISION.]

This was the first time that the papacy came into collision with modern liberty. It shuddered in alarm, and the shock was violent.

Innocent swore (as was his custom), and then declared the Great Charter null and void, forbade the king under pain of anathema to respect the liberties which he had confirmed,[134] ascribed the conduct of the barons to the instigation of Satan, and ordered them to make apology to the king, and to send a deputation to Rome to learn from the mouth of the pope himself what should be the government of England. This was the way in which the papacy welcomed the first manifestations of liberty among the nations, and made known the model system under which it claimed to govern the whole world.

[134] Sub intimatione anathematis prohibentes ne dictus rex eam observare praesumat. Matth. Paris, 224.

The priests of England supported the anathemas p.r.o.nounced by their chief. They indulged in a thousand jeers and sarcasms against John about the charter he had accepted:--"This is the twenty-fifth king of England--not a king, not even a kingling--but the disgrace of kings--a king without a kingdom--the fifth wheel of a waggon--the last of kings, and the disgrace of his people!--I would not give a straw for him.... _Fuisti rex, nunc fex_ (once a king, but now a clown)." John, unable to support his disgrace, groaned and gnashed his teeth and rolled his eyes, tore sticks from the hedges and gnawed them like a maniac, or dashed them into fragments on the ground.[135]

[135] Arreptos baculos et stipites more furiosi nunc corrodere, nunc corrosos confringere. Ibid. 222.

The barons, unmoved alike by the insolence of the pope and the despair of the king, replied that they would maintain the charter. Innocent excommunicated them. "Is it the pope's business to regulate temporal matters?" asked they. "By what right do vile usurers and foul simoniacs domineer over our country and excommunicate the whole world?"

[Sidenote: RELIGION OF THE SENSES.]

The pope soon triumphed throughout England. His va.s.sal John having hired some bands of adventurers from the continent, traversed at their head the whole country from the Channel to the Forth. These mercenaries carried desolation in their track: they extorted money, made prisoners, burnt the barons' castles, laid waste their parks, and dishonoured their wives and daughters.[136] The king would sleep in a house, and the next morning set fire to it. Blood-stained a.s.sa.s.sins scoured the country during the night, the sword in one hand and the torch in the other, marking their progress by murder and conflagration.[137] Such was the enthronization of popery in England.

At this sight the barons, overcome by emotion, denounced both the king and the pope: "Alas! poor country!" they exclaimed. "Wretched England!... And thou, O pope, a curse light upon thee!"[138]

[136] Uxores et filias suas ludibrio expositas. Ibid. 231.

[137] Discurrebant sicarii caede humana cruentati, noctivagi, incendiarii, strictis ensibus. Ibid.

[138] Sic barones lacrymantes et lamentantes regem et papam maledixerunt. Matth. Paris, 234.

The curse was not long delayed. As the king was returning from some more than usually successful foray, and as the royal waggons were crossing the sands of the Wash, the tide rose and all sank in the abyss.[139] This accident filled John with terror: it seemed to him that the earth was about to open and swallow him up; he fled to a convent, where he drank copiously of cider, and died of drunkenness and fright.[140]

[139] Aperta est in mediis fluctibus terra et voraginis abyssus, quae absorbuerunt universa c.u.m hominibus et equis. Ibid. 242.

[140] Novi ciceris potatione nimis repletus. Ibid. ad ann. 1216.

Such was the end of the pope's va.s.sal--of his armed missionary in Great Britain. Never had so vile a prince been the involuntary occasion to his people of such great benefits. From his reign England may date her enthusiasm for liberty and her dread of popery.

During this time a great transformation had been accomplished.

Magnificent churches and the marvels of religious art, with ceremonies and a mult.i.tude of prayers and chantings dazzled the eyes, charmed the ears, and captivated the senses; but testified also to the absence of every strong moral and Christian disposition, and the predominance of worldliness in the church. At the same time the adoration of images and relics, saints, angels, and Mary the mother of G.o.d, the worships of _latria_, _doulia_, and _hyperdoulia_,[141] the real Mediator transported from the throne of mercy to the seat of vengeance, at once indicated and kept up among the people that ignorance of truth and absence of grace which characterize popery. All these errors tended to bring about a reaction: and in fact the march of the Reformation may now be said to begin.

[141] The Romish church distinguishes three kinds of worship: _latria_, that paid to G.o.d; _doulia_, to saints; and _hyperdoulia_, to the Virgin Mary.

England had been brought low by the papacy: it rose up again by resisting Rome. Grostete, Bradwardine, and Edward III, prepared the way for Wickliffe, and Wickliffe for the Reformation.

CHAPTER VI.

Reaction--Grostete--Principles of Reform--Contest with the Pope--Sewal--Progress of the Nation--Opposition to the Papacy--Conversion of Bradwardine--Grace is Supreme--Edward III--Statutes of _Provisors_ and _Praemunire_.

[Sidenote: REACTION.]

In the reign of Henry III, son of John, while the king was conniving at the usurpations of Rome, and the pope ridiculing the complaints of the barons, a pious and energetic man, of comprehensive understanding, was occupied in the study of the Holy Scriptures in their original languages, and bowing to their sovereign authority. Robert Grostete (Greathead or _Capito_) was born of poor parents in the county of Lincolnshire, and being raised to the see of Lincoln in 1235, when he was sixty years of age, he boldly undertook to reform his diocese, one of the largest in England. Nor was this all. At the very time when the Roman pontiff, who had hitherto been content to be called the vicar of St. Peter, proclaimed himself the vicar of G.o.d,[142] and was ordering the English bishops to find benefices for _three hundred Romans_,[143]

Grostete was declaring that "to follow a pope who rebels against the will of Christ, is to separate from Christ and his body; and if ever the time should come when all men follow an erring pontiff, then will be the great apostasy. Then will true Christians refuse to obey, and Rome will be the cause of an unprecedented schism."[144] Thus did he predict the Reformation. Disgusted at the avarice of the monks and priests, he visited Rome to demand a reform. "Brother," said Innocent IV to him with some irritation, "_Is thine eye evil, because I am good?_" The English bishop exclaimed with a sigh: "O money, money! how great is thy power--especially in this court of Rome!"

[142] Non puri hominis sed veri Dei vicem gerit in terris. (Innocent III. Epp. lib. vi. i. 335.) He wields on earth the power, not of a holy man but of the true G.o.d.