42. Wilson in Carter (2004), 6.

43 Carter (2004), 42; Lee (1992).

44. Lee (1992); Pendle (2005), 217-59.

45 Carter (2004), 192; Pendle (2005), 6-8, 299-307; Lee (1992); Chang (1996), 143-50, 188. A nuclear physicist at Berkeley, w.a.n.g Ganchang, also went back to China and became a central figure in the PRC's atomic bomb project. See Chalmers Johnson, "Big Bucks, Big Bangs," London Review ofBooks (2o July 2006), p. 21.w.a.n.g went home in 1949, and I do not know if security problems in the United States had anything to do with his return.

46. Rich and Janos (1994), 111-12.

47. Ibid., 7,24, 107,185, 203, 214, 245, 308, 347.

48. Markusen et al. (1991), 90-92, 97- 49. Lotchin (1992), 320, 353; Pomeroy (1965), 302.

5o. Lotchin (1992), 1, 4-5; Markusen et al. (1991), 39, 43, 51-53.

51. FitzGerald (2000), 20; Peirce (1972), 280, 286; Carroll (2006), 486.

52. Winchester (1991),196-200; I tried to improve on Winchester's characterization of CINCPAC but couldn't. See also Larson quoted in Ferguson and Turnbull (1999), 79- 8o, and Kaplan (2005), 134-35.

53 Ferguson and Turnbull (1999),103-4.

54. David E. Sanger and James Glanz, "U.S. Seeking New Strategy for b.u.t.tressing Iraq's Government," New York Times (June IT, 2006), nytimes.com; Tom Englehart, "Can You Say 'Permanent Bases'?" Nation (March 27, 2006), pp. 28-29.

55 Kennan wrote in 1994 that containment, to him, was "primarily a diplomatic and political task, though not wholly without military implications." Once the Soviets were convinced that more expansionism would not help them, "then the moment would have come for serious talks with them about the future of Europe." After the Marshall Plan, the Berlin blockade, and other measures, he thought that moment had arrived by 1950. However, "it was one of the great disappointments of my life to discover that neither our Government nor our Western European allies had any interest in entering into such discussions at all. What they and the others wanted from Moscow, with respect to the future of Europe, was essentially 'unconditional surrender.' They were prepared to wait for it. And this was the beginning of the 40 years of Cold War." New York Times (March 14, 1994), op-ed page.

56. For a fuller discussion see c.u.mings (2003), ch.1.

57. A 1970 Foreign Relations Committee statement quoted in Johnson (2004), 152.

Chapter 16. Silicon Valley.

Epigraph from a Rochester New York newspaper article in 1846 about the telegraph, quoted in Seidensticker (2006),154.

i. Schwartz, Leyden, and Hyatt (2000), v; Kaplan (1999), 9-io, 120-21; Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 2, 43; Nevens in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 81, 83; Deutschman (2000), 182-83. Bureau of Labor Statistics data show that productivity rose 12.3 percent from the last quarter of 1996 to the third quarter of zooo, or about 3 percent a year. See "Productivity of Workers Increases, as Do Labor Costs," New York Times (November 3, 2000), p. C4- 2. Gordon (2004), 417; Winslow (1995), xiii.

3. Castells offers a contrary view that I find fascinating but unconvincing. He writes that the information revolution transformed how we communicate, trade, consume, and make war, which I think is true. But it has not transformed "the way we think" or the way "we live, we die," and least of all has it transformed the way "we make love," Americans still being many miles behind the Kama Sutra or the Thousand Nights and a Night. See Castells (1998), 2; also 343 4. Clyde Prestowitz wrote as if j.a.pan were already hegemonic and claimed that the United States "had effectively lost its consumer electronics industry by the mid-1970s" and faced a "crisis" in the semiconductor industry in 1985. See Trading Places (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 92-93, and c.u.mings (1998), ch. i.

5. Linder (1986),1-3,118; McRae (1994), 33, 213, 251.

6. Research by Edward N. Wolff, cited in Sylvia Nasar, "Cars and VCRs Aren't Necessarily the First Domino," New York Times (May 3, 1992), p. E6; also data from the McKinsey Global Inst.i.tute cited in David Brooks, "The Nation of the Future," New York Times (February 2, 2006), p. A25.

7. Derian (1990), 5-6,175, 267, 285.

8. In September 1996 Sandia Labs announced that it had built a Ja.n.u.s parallel supercomputer with teraflop (i trillion calculations per second) capability, by far the fastest computer in the world. See also Martin Fackler, "j.a.pan's Chip Makers Search for a Strategy," New York Times (January 2, 2006), p. C5.

9. Bureau of Labor Statistics cited in New York Times (November 3, 2000), p. C4, and in Martin Crutsinger, "Productivity Gains Slowed a Lot in 2005," a.s.sociated Press story carried in AnnArbor News (February 3, 2006), p. 4. See also Jeff Madrick "Economic Scene," New York Times (January 24, 2002), p. C2; Richard W. Stevenson, "Greenspan Hails Output Gains in Sluggish Economy," New York Times (October 24, 2002), nytimes .com; and Austan Goolsbee, "How the U.S. Has Kept the Productivity Playing Field Tilted to Its Advantage," New York Times (June 21, 2007), p. C3. Other figures come from David Brooks, "The Nation of the Future," New York Times (February 2, 2oo6), p. A25; and from Hal R. Varian, "American Companies Show an Edge in Putting Information to Work," New York Times (January 12, 2006), p. C3.

1o. Daniel Gross "Economic View," New York Times (December z5, 2005), sec. 3, p. 3, citing Dale Jorgenson and his collaborators. See also Castells (1996), 45.

ii. Rowen in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 191.

12. Hafner and Lyon (1996),12,151-52; Cringely (1992), 86-87- 13. Hiltzik (1999),17, 37, 48, 58,150-51,155-57; Wolfe (1983).

14. Hiltzik (1999), xiii-xv; xxi-xxvi, 45-48, 65,122-23, 144; Hafner and Lyon (1996), 151-52,189.

15. Hafner and Lyon (1996), 223-27- 16. Cringely (1992), 304 17. Hiltsik (1999) 264, 311-12, 329, 332-33, 340-42, 358-60, 368-59; Linzmayer (2004), 75; Cringely (1992), 105-o6.

18. Hertzfeld (2005),192; Hiltsik (1999),195-96.

i9. Schwartz, Leyden and Hyatt (2000); Moore in Rhodes (1999) 243; Gordon and Shef in Rhodes (1999), 279-81- 20. Lee in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 94-123.

21. Lecuyer in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 159, 166. San Jose ranked first and Washington second in 1989, for example, as a "defense-dependent community." See Mia Gray, Elyse Golob, Ann R. Markusen, and Sam Ock Park, "The Four Faces of Silicon Valley," in Markusen (1999) 295.

22. Schwartz, Leyden, and Hyatt (2000), 316; Castells (1998), 339-40.

23. For example, Winslow (r995).

24. Federal Writers Project (1939), 117-18- 25. Timothyj. Sturgeon in Kenney (2000),19-21, 28, 30, 35.

z6. Rosenberg (1982), 92-96; Chandler (200r), r7.

z7. Timothy J. Sturgeon in Kenney (2000), 27, 30-33; Lecuyer (zoo6), 15, 19, 25-28, 30,49- z8. Kaplan (1999), 33-37, 44; Lavender (1972), 442; Lecuyer (2006), 53-55, 77, 83; Damon Darlin, "A Shrine to Time Spent Tinkering in a Modest Garage," New York Times (December 4, 2005), p. N37. Darlin points out that Walt Disney started his business in a garage, too-in 1922.

29. Lecuyer (2006), 55-59, 92-98, 30. Ibid., 101-4,116-17,122,124.

31. Steve Lohr, "New Economy," New York Times (February 2, 2004), p. C6.

32. TimothyJ. Sturgeon in Kenney (2000), 42-43, 52.

33. Riordan and Hoddeson (1997) 1-4, 6-7, 202-4, 254; Berlin (2005), 53; Kaplan (1999), 38-9, 40-46. The quotation is from the June 30, 1948, news conference when Bell Labs announced the discovery, which got reported on page 46 of the New York Times the next day (Riordan and Hoddeson,164-65).

34 Riordan and Hoddeson (1997), 225, 234-39; Kaplan (1999), 45-47; Berlin (2005), 5, 26, 70, 87; Cringely (1992), 37.

35. Quoted in Morgan (1967), 7. Meanwhile Alfred Chandler Jr. defined IBM as the "path definer" for the industry from the 1950s into the 199os, another good example of Eastern blinkers. Chandler (2001), 82.

36. Berlin (2005), 182-86; Lecuyer in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 167, 177-83; Winslow (1995), 30; the best discussion of ultra-reliability is in Lecuyer (2006), 148-61.

37 Berlin (2005), 210-13.

38. Kaplan (r999), 45-49, 68-69; Berlin (2005), 217; John Markoff, "I.B.M. Researchers Find a Way to Keep Moore's Law on Pace," New York Times (February 20, 2006), nytimes.com.

39 Lowen (1997), 31-33, 37-38.

40. Ibid., 69-72.

41. Hornbeck (1983), 95; McCartney (1988), 78n.

42. Lowen (1997), 78, 89,115,120-21,137. David Packard took a personal interest in a professor named John Bunzel, said to be "anti-nuclear." In 1962 Packard asked Stanford's president to "flag" his file. The Political Science Department voted unanimously for Bunzel's promotion, but he was denied tenure (Lowen, p. 219).

43. StuartJ. Leslie in Kenney (2000), 6o-6i, 63; Lecuyer (2006), 7.

44. Markusen et al. (1986), 78, 99.

45. Deutschman (2000), 33, 287.

46. Linzmayer (2004), 1-2; Mokyr (1990), viii.

47. Linzmayer (2004), 5-8.

48. Ibid., 10-12, r8, 23, 27-33, 45; Lecuyer (2006), i.

49. Linzmayer (2004), 94-98.

50. Wozniak in Hertzfeld (2005), xv.

51. Kaplan (1999), 134-35, 138-42; Winslow (1995), 68; Symonds (2003), 59-63, 41213. Ellison acknowledges that he first heard about relational databases "at a meeting with the CIA." Symonds (2003), 59.

5z. Cringely (1992), 298-303; Annalee Saxenian in Kenney (2000), 143.

53. Hiltzik (1999), 264,311-12.

54 Kaplan (1999), 226-29.

55 Lewis (2000), 27-54, 75, and pa.s.sim; Clark (1999), 7, 34.

56. By the time Bill Hewlett pa.s.sed away in 2001, he and David Packard had dropped more than $300 million on the university, an amount equivalent to Leland Stanford's original endowment. Obituary, "He Led the 'HP Way,"' San Francisco Chronicle (January 13, 2001), p. A15- 57. Clark (1999), 22-25, 32; Clark quoted in Kaplan (1999), 232.

58. Kaplan (1999), 234-37, 241-43, 249-51; Clark (1999), 7. Clark told Lewis he wanted $18 million for Mosaic when he had seven employees-the Illinois seven. See Lewis (2000), 71.

59. Clark (1999), 38-40, 49. Berners-Lee is remarkably equable about his pioneering work being turned into Silicon Valley fortunes and, like Clark, tends to censure NCSA. See Berners-Lee (2000), 69-71, 82-83.

6o. Clark (1999), 67, 73, 84, 190-9r; Berners-Lee (2000), 93; Mokyr (1990), 276-78. Dr. Smarr's career and his new position were featured in New York Times Business Section (December 10, 2000), pp. r, r6.

6i. Clark (r999), 54-56, 60: Lewis (aooo), 72-31121-22.

62. The percentage of Asian-American professionals depends on the method for counting them. By counting Asian surnames, one study found that 24 percent of technology firms in Silicon Valley were run by Asians in 1998, and that they founded 26 to 29 percent of start-ups from 199o to 1998. See Saxenian (2000), 7-9.

63. Kaplan (r999), 303-6, 312; Battelle (2005), 57-58; Saxenian in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 252. Kaplan says Sequoia provided $i million, Battelle says $2 million. The Asian-American population is about 30 percent both in San Jose and in Santa Clara County, according to 2005 Census Bureau estimates.

64. Wolff(1998),78.

65. Ibid., 245, 252, 265.

66. Battelle (2005), 33-34.

67. Ibid., 65-68, 75-78, 85, 89,130.

68. Ibid., 124,142.

69. Clark (1999), 79, 224-25, 230; Cringely (1992) calls him Kim Il Sung, p. 114.

70. Manes and Andrews (1994),11-13, 71. Ibid., 15-19, 25-34,47- 72. Ibid., 50-52, 57, 62.

73. Andrews (1999), 41-46; Cringely (1992), 132-33, 144, 149; Manes and Andrews (1994),157-62. At first Gates paid an upfront fee of $ro,ooo to Seattle Computer to license 86-DOS, and then in July 1981 he bought it outright for $50,000. Manes and Andrews don't know exactly how much Gates got from IBM for each usage of MS-DOS; some people say Si, others $ro or $15.

74. For example, Heilemann (2001) subt.i.tled "The End of the Microsoft Era."

75. Manes and Andrews (r994), 308-9; Heilemann (200,), 48-49.

76. Heilemann (2001), 48-49, 53.

77. Timothy Egan, "Seahawks Rise, as Does Seattle, in Tyc.o.o.n's Eyes," New York Times (January 21, 2006), pp. A1, A9.

78. Riordan and Hoddeson (1997), 209, 210-13.

79 Ibid., 213-16.

8o. Ibid., 256-62, 271; Berlin (2005), 137; Lecuyer in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 173.

81. Chandler (2001),135; Cringely (1992), 168-69.

8z. Cringely (1992), 168-69,171-75.

83. TI's revenues increased sharply in recent years, from $8 billion in 2001 to an estimated $15 billion in 2006, as it made alliances with Mokia and Samsung. Damon Darlin, "Cashing in Its Chips," New York Times (July 9, 2006), sec. 3, pp. 1, 7- 84. Berlin (2005), 281-86, 304. (Berlin has an excellent account of Sematech.) See also Lecuyer in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000),173-79 85. City export data is available at ita.doc.gov/td/industry/otea/state-reports.

86. Saxenian (r994), 11-12, and pa.s.sim; her tables on pp. 108-9 chart the systematic rise of Silicon Valley and decline of Route 128 from the 19405 to the 199os.

87. Henton in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 46-49, 51-53.

88. Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), V.

89. For a completely rosy view of these relationships by a Stanford engineering dean, see Gibbons in Lee, Miller, Hanc.o.c.k, and Rowen (2000), 200-217- 9o. Roger Anderson, "Wattage Where It's Needed," New York Times (June 6, 2001), op-ed page.

91. Battelle (2005),14-15, 197-200.

Chapter 17. Conclusion.