In June 1859 the French defeated the Austrians, who ceded Lombardy to Piedmont. Then the central Italian duchies turned against their Austrian-backed rulers and by March 1860 the Piedmontese were in possession of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, besides occupying part of the Papal States. Yet Piedmont had no intention of invading the Mezzogiorno.

In April, however, Garibaldi landed in Sicily where Palermo had risen in revolt. The late king had put down an earlier Sicilian rising and would certainly have known how to deal with this one, but his twenty-two year old son, Francis II, did not. He had already disbanded the Swiss regiments who had been his best troops. After Garibaldi overran Sicily in May, Francis granted a const.i.tution, only hastening the regime's collapse.

Many Southerners lost confidence in their inexperienced young king. When Garibaldi landed on the mainland in August, a handful of liberals tried to start risings, supported by a few business men eager for new markets in the North and by peasants who hoped naively that the great estates would be shared out. Foggia declared for Garibaldi, but in Bari and other Apulian cities royalist mobs routed similar demonstrations.

In September King Francis abandoned Naples to Garibaldi, withdrawing to the fortress city of Gaeta to concentrate his troops. Piedmont, saddled with an astronomical national debt, realised that it could take over the rich Southern kingdom. In October, a Piedmontese army invaded the Regno, occupying Naples and besieging Gaeta, bribing generals and officials. Even the most loyal despaired and at the end of the month, in a carefully rigged plebiscite, Apulians voted with the rest of the South for 'unity'.

The Risorgimento must be judged by its fruits, and for Apulia they were very bitter indeed. Far from improving conditions, the destruction of the ancient Regno made them much worse, just as de Sivo claimed. Here is how a recent historian, Roger Absalom, describes the impact of 'unity': To most southerners the experience was indistinguishable from harshly rapacious colonisation by a foreign country, which introduced a totally new set of laws and regulations governing every aspect of civil society, in the name of free trade subst.i.tuted shoddy and over-priced imports for the familiar products local handicrafts and industry had previously provided, imposed ruinous and unaccustomed levels of taxation, conscripted the young men into its army and added insult to injury by the promulgation of contemptuous att.i.tudes towards them.

Few dreams have ended in such disillusionment as the Risorgimento did for the Mezzogiorno. Too late, Southern Italy realised that, far from being liberated, it was the victim of another Northern conquest, by arrogant invaders who sneered that "Africa begins south of Rome." The Duke of Maddaloni (head of the great Carafa family) protested in the new Italian parliament, "This is invasion, not annexation, not union. We are being treated like an occupied country." That was what the death of the Regno meant for Apulia.

If brought up to date politically, the Borbone monarchy could have offered the Mezzogiorno a chance of becoming a self-governing, prosperous Southern Italy. Instead, the Risorgimento handed over the South to Northern a.s.set-strippers, to be misgoverned from a far away capital. What had been a prosperous country soon became an economic slum in which the Apulians suffered as much as anybody. Some of them, however, were not going to give up without a fight.

55.

The Brigands' War

We swear and promise to defend, with our blood if need be, G.o.d, the Supreme Pontiff Pius, Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies, and our column commander.

Sergeant Pasquale Romano ON 13 FEBRUARY 1861, King Francis sailed into exile. Gaeta, his last stronghold, surrendered to the Piedmontese besiegers and the Borbone army was disbanded. It was the end of the seven hundred year old Regno.

The Piedmontese tried to win over the Borbone officers, giving over 2,000 of them commissions in the new Italian army or paying pensions to those who preferred to retire, but in March Constantino Nigra, a senior Piedmontese official at Naples, reported they were angry and resentful. As for the other ranks, "we have a horde of Borbone soldiers, disbanded without work or food, who will take to the mountains when spring comes." He adds that the clergy are hostile and the aristocracy "in mourning for the Borboni." Farini, governor of 'The Neapolitan Provinces', openly admitted that not even a hundred Southerners wanted a united Italy.

Even if the Southern leaders who now emerged were peasants and sometimes criminals, what the Piedmontese called 'The Brigands' War' was none the less a genuine civil war. For a decade 120,000 Piedmontese troops were needed to hold down Southern Italy. Between April 1861 and April 1863 nearly 2,500 "brigands" were killed in combat, over 1,000 shot after surrendering and another 5,500 taken prisoner. These figures are for the Mezzogiorno as a whole no breakdown is available for Apulia alone and does not include casualties among the handful of die-hards who went on fighting.

Some of the leaders were former Borbone NCOs, discharged without pensions unlike their officers. Their sole hope was Francis II's return and they were fighting for his restoration. Large numbers took an oath of loyalty to him, some men continuing to wear the Borbone army's blue tunic and red trousers, others using as a badge a silver piastre coin with the king's head. Afraid of losing their pensions, Borbone officers dared not join them openly, but instead organised committees at Trieste, Ma.r.s.eilles and Malta to smuggle guns. Money and more guns came from Rome, where King Francis had established a government in exile, since the Two Sicilies was still recognised by the Papacy and Austria. Papal officials turned a blind eye to gun-running over their frontier and frequently gave shelter to brigands who were pursued by Piedmontese troops.

Bases were set up in the hills or in the Apulian ravines, where self-appointed leaders recruited ex-soldiers returning penniless to their villages. Mounted and flying the Borbone flag, they ambushed enemy troops or, after cutting the telegraph wires, galloped into isolated cities to shoot the sindaco and his officials. They were aided by landowners and former Borbone officials, by priests and peasants. In the opinion of the Peasants, Hare noted, "brigands were always poveretti [poor things], to be pitied and sympathised with."

In April 1861 Carmine Donatello Crocco, a huge man with a black beard down to his waist, made a triumphant entry into Venosa at the head of a brigand army. On hearing the news, nearby Melfi, led by its most respected citizens, promptly hoisted the Borbone flag. Three days later, however, General Crocco hastily retreated at the approach of Piedmontese troops.

Throughout the summer the Capitanata was terrorised by bands like Crocco's, all flying the old royal flag. The governor of Foggia reported that ma.s.serie were being raided daily, their owners or managers abducted and held to ransom.

When in July Luigi Palumbo seized Vieste with 400 men, welcomed by shouts of "Viva Francesco II!" the new Italy's supporters were rounded up and shot, their ma.s.serie sacked, their corn and wine shared out among the peasants. Warned that an enemy force was on its way, Palumbo rode off to occupy Vico del Gargano, where he had a Te Deum sung to celebrate the restoration of Borbone authority. When the Piedmontese arrived, he and his men took refuge in the Foresta Umbra.

All over Apulia brigands were entering large towns with impunity, buying food and medical supplies. They had spies every-where, including a group of ex-officers at Bari, together with agents and depots. Persuaded that the entire South was going to rise for him, in early autumn 1861 King Francis sent a veteran Carlist general, Jose Borjes, to Calabria to take command. Unfortunately, as a Spaniard, Borjes found it impossible to a.s.sert his authority over the Calabrians and moved to Apulia, where for a time he joined Crocco in the western Murgia. Towards the end of 1861, however, after two months spent hiding in woods and caves, he despaired and with his small Spanish staff and a few brigands made for the Papal States. "On their being surrounded just before reaching the frontier, they surrendered without a fight, in the confident belief that their lives would be spared", writes Ulloa, prime minister of the Borbone government in exile: "Otherwise they would have fought to the death. But they were at once disarmed, and sent before a firing squad."

By then, in Apulia and indeed all over the South, it had started to look as if the Piedmontese troops were winning the war. A bitter winter set in. Disheartened by the cold and damp of their miserable lairs in the ravines, many Apulian brigands gave up what had become a merciless conflict.

Among those who lost hope in the 'Brigands' War' was General Crocco, who fled to Rome, abandoning his mistress, Maria Giovanna of Ruvo. His career was extraordinary yet far from untypical. Although he had deserted from King Ferdinand's army in 1851, after killing a fellow soldier, at the Risorgimento he had become the brigands' leader in western Apulia and Basilicata. In 1872 he would make the mistake of returning to Basilicata, to be caught and sentenced to life imprisonment.

At the close of 1861, the journalist Count Maffei, an enthusiastic supporter of the new Italy, was genuinely convinced that the brigands were beaten, "reduced to a few wretched wanderers, hunted like wild beasts." He was wrong. The war had only just begun and, despite its initial successes, the Piedmontese army would suffer more casualties then it had during all the battles of the entire Risorgimento, many of them killed in Apulia.

56.

"A War of Extermination"

Piedmontese troops occupy all Southern Italy, only because of savage and merciless enforcement of martial law... Those who will not submit are slaughtered .. in a war of extermination, in which 'pity is a crime'.

When an insurgent is captured by the Piedmontese he is shot.

P Cala Ulloa, "Lettres Napolitaines"

NORTHERN OCCUPATION, heavy new taxes and rising inflation had enraged the Southerners. Conscription into the Italian formerly Piedmontese army fuelled their resentment, partly because all the NCOs were Piedmontese who spoke an incomprehensible dialect, and many unwilling conscripts preferred to join the brigands instead. Sometimes there were other reasons for joining. New farm-managers, imported to run confiscated royal or church estates, often raped the labourers' pretty daughters, threatening the parents with eviction if they complained, so a brother or male cousin would knife the rapist, and then go off to be a brigand.

As has been seen, the wooded Murgia dei Trulli around Alberobello was perfect bandit country. Among the brigands' friends here were the Gigante, a prominent Alberobello family. (Their Ma.s.seria Gigante, now an hotel, is just outside the town.) Both the priest Don Francesco Gigante and his brother Luigi, who was in the National Guard, were in touch with the famous Sergeant Romano. During the night of 26 July, 1862 Romano led twenty-six picked men into Alberobello, crept up on the Guard House and took it at bayonet point; the plan, instigated by Luigi Gigante according to a captured brigand, was to kill six pillars of the new government at Alberobello, including the mayor. But the local National Guard commander happened to look out of his window, saw the brigands and alerted the town by firing his revolver. Romano and his men ran off, taking thirty rifles. When charged, the Gigante brothers bribed the police who came from Altamura to investigate, and the magistrate at Bari, who secretly loathed the new regime, found that there was no case for them to answer.

Pasquale Romano was the best known capobanda (leader) in this part of Apulia. An educated man and a devout Catholic, he wrote of his hatred for "the treacherous, invading usurpers who are trying to hunt us down." He survived in the woods of the Murgia dei Trulli longer than most brigands because of his many friends among the peasants, who fed him and warned of the enemy's approach. Sheltering by day in the little stone huts in the olive groves, he travelled long distances by night, to organise 150 followers in two main groups divided into sections. He attempted to give his comitiva military discipline, calling it "The Company of the Sergeant from Gioia." Looting was forbidden and his men had to at-tend Ma.s.s on Sundays, often in the chapel of the Ma.s.seria dei Monaci near Altamura, a service that was known by locals as 'The Brigands' Ma.s.s'. Even so, embittered by the Piedmontesi's deliberate murder of his fiancee Lauretta, he never took prisoners.

However, the odds were growing much greater. The new rulers had started to buy the support of Southern landowners, just as they had bought the Borbone officers by guaranteeing their pensions. At first, a fair number of the galantuomini (gentlemen) had encouraged the brigands, sheltering them, even providing supplies and ammunition; they disliked being bullied by Piedmontese and had feared that their estates would be confiscated. Now however, the regime guaranteed their property, encouraging them to raise private armies and fight the brigands. They cowed their peasants, who stopped helping the men in the forests and grottoes.

During 1862, "a regular battle was fought near Taranto, when twenty-six brigands were killed, and eleven shot the next day in the market-place", Janet Ross was told twenty years later. "After that the Tarentine gentlemen could visit their ma.s.serie without the fear of being held up for ransom, or having to take a body of armed men to protect them." Many brigand leaders were caught between December and the following June. Giuseppe Valente known as 'Nenna-Nenna', a deserter from Garibaldi's army was captured near Lecce and swiftly given forced labour for life. 'Il Caparello', operating between Santeramo and Gioia del Colle, was killed in January, and Cosmo Mazzeo, an ex-Borbone soldier from San Marzano di San Giuseppe, was taken prisoner in June, to be shot in November.

On 5 January 1863 Sergeant Romano attacked his home town of Gioia del Colle with 28 men. The National Guard and a troop of Piedmontese cavalry proved too strong; 22 were killed and the rest were captured and shot. Among those who fell in the battle was Romano himself despite begging for a 'soldier's death' by a bullet like the others, he was bayoneted in cold blood. From a diary found on his body, it is clear he knew that some of his men were no better than "bandits." Even so, they had been "bound to obey all orders given by me to further the cause of our rightful king." Also found was a copy of the oath he made them swear to King Francis and "our column commander." The sergeant is still a hero at Gioia del Colle, where a street was named after him in 2010.

Cosimo Pizzichiccio took over command of Romano's comitiva. During a battle with Piedmontese troops in June 1863 at the Ma.s.seria Belmonte, east of the Statte-Crispiano road he lost thirty-seven men killed, wounded or taken prisoner, although he himself got away with the remainder of the band to the woods in an area bounded by Mottola, Martina Franca and Alberobello. From here he continued to rob ma.s.serie and take hostages for ransom. His brother was caught in July while what was left of the comitiva were ambushed in a wood a few days later, but managed to escape. Like Romano, Pizzichiccio was blamed for fewer murders than most capobande. In October, however, he kidnapped a black-smith, Giuseppe Marzano, who unwisely boasted he would eat his captor's brains 'like a sheep's head'. Pizzichiccio promptly cut him down with a cavalry sabre.

Throughout, the soldiers from Piedmont retaliated with the utmost savagery. Admittedly they were under enormous pressure, constantly ambushed, besides knowing that they would be tortured and murdered if captured. They were also decimated by malaria at one point, out of each company of a hundred men only thirty-five were fit for service. A former British Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, commented with some exaggeration that "The cruelties of the Piedmontese armies to the Neapolitan royalists were unsurpa.s.sed in any civil war."

Undeniably, it was a horrible war, with reports of men being burned alive or crucified by both sides. Hundreds of Apulian non-combattants were killed, many others fleeing to the cities, leaving their farms deserted or their shops boarded up. Most of the towns and the ma.s.serie were ringed by trenches and stockades. It was impossible to travel anywhere without a heavily armed escort, while Bari was cut off by land. The only reasonably safe people were those landowners who, like the old feudal barons, had recruited private armies.

All over Apulia men were imprisoned without trial simply be-cause some enemy had seized the opportunity of settling an old score, charges of collaboration with brigands being easily fabricated. Landowners whose ma.s.serie had not been raided fell under suspicion automatically while senior officials were often accused without any justification of supplying rifles and ammunition. Despite having shown slavish loyalty to the new regime, the sindaco of Alberobello was charged with taking bribes and with helping a notorious brigand, Giorgio Palmisani, to break out of prison. He was only acquitted after spending months under house arrest.

New brigand leaders were always emerging to fill the places of those who had been killed or captured. Among the most notorious were the psychopath Caruso, Crocco's lieutenant 'Ninco Nanco' Coppa, a former Borbone soldier, and Varanelli, who was rumoured to eat human flesh. Lesser men included 'Brucciapaese', 'Mangiacavallo' and 'Orecchiomozzo', each one with a small band of followers.

Caruso, once a cowherd of the Prince of San Severo, possessed real military talent. By the end of 1862 he was leading the largest surviving comitiva in Apulia, 200 mounted men according to the Piedmontese garrison commander at Spinazzola. He never took prisoners, invariably killing enemy wounded. Having demanded bread, sheep and fodder from a peasant named Antonio Picciuti, after receiving them he seized Picciuti's hand, laid it on a table and chopped it off, as a warning that he would need more next time. On another occasion he hacked off the arms and legs of a suspected informer before throwing him into a cauldron of boiling water. During the single month of September 1863 he is said to have personally killed 200 people. By then he had been driven into the Benevento where, after further atrocities, his band was wiped out. In December, accompanied by a sole surviving follower, Caruso was captured in the hovel of his sixteen year old mistress Filomena and immediately shot.

'Ninco-Nanco', a game-keeper formerly in prison for murder, operated with fifty hors.e.m.e.n in the Murgia between Altamura and Minervino, hiding in the ravines. During the terrible winter of 18634 his comitiva was hunted down and broken, 'Ninco-Nanco' being apparently killed in the storming of a ma.s.seria where he had taken refuge. But somehow he got away, escaping to the Papal States, from where he sent a defiant message, "Ninco-Nanco lives!"

Other brigands held out in the Abruzzi and the Piedmontese garrisons dared not relax. This explains Mme Figuier's alarming experience in her locanda at Trani during the winter of 1865. She had observed some suspicious looking men m.u.f.fled in cloaks standing round the stove when a young chamber-maid warned her that she and her husband were in the gravest danger, telling her how to answer questions she was going to ask in front of them.

'"You are Spanish, surely Signora, aren't you?', the little servant girl asked me loudly. 'You have never had a father, a brother or a fiance who was a soldier, have you? Isn't it true that you trust in the Virgin and that you think brigands are good men who earn a living by taking what the rich can easily spare?'" Realising that her husband had been mistaken for a Piedmontese officer Piedmontese officers often spoke French among themselves Mme Figuier hastily agreed. Knowing the brigands' sympathy for the Carlist guerillas in Spain, she added that the bands in the Abruzzi were being joined daily by Spaniards. Smiling, the men doffed their hats, offering to protect the lady and her husband during their stay.

In 18657 the Piedmontese officials at Naples made certain of the co-operation of the Southern monied cla.s.ses by allowing them to buy up the confiscated crown and church lands, producing the wretched social consequences that have been described in earlier chapters. As Francis II's brother-in-law, the Austrian Emperor Franz-Joseph was understandably eager to see him restored, but in 1866 Austria's defeat by Prussia and the new Italian state finally dispelled all hope of a restoration. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies degenerated into La Questione Meridionale (The Southern Question) poverty stricken, despised Southern Italy.

The handful of Apulian brigands who survived in the Abruzzi fled across the Papal frontier. Whether genuine royalists like Sergeant Romano or psychopaths like Caruso, they had been the last defenders of the ancient Regno. Now that they were eliminated, the Risorgimento's a.s.set-stripping could be completed without any fear of interference. Nothing remained to deter speculators from investing in the 'Apulian Texas', and a new way of life lay ahead for the labourers on the Tavoliere.

Occasionally those who found conditions in the labour gangs beyond endurance still took to the ravines in the Murge, from where they raided lonely ma.s.serie, but by 1900, brigands who rode out from caves had been replaced by urban gangsters and were pa.s.sing into folk-memory.

There is a bitter legacy. As a young man in Turin, Antonio Gramsci, one of the founders of the Italian Communist Party, met Piedmontese veterans of the Brigands' War, and he always remembered the hatred they felt for their 'Southern brothers." Apulia, on the other hand, has neither forgotten nor forgiven its "liberation."

Part XIV.

Epilogue.

Apulia Today.

THERE HAS BEEN A COMPLETE TRANSFORMATION since 1945. For all its beauty, the old Apulia was a harsh, cruel land, most of whose inhabitants lived a wretchedly hard life. In contrast today's Apulians have grown rich. Yet the region remains strikingly different from the rest of Italy, with strong echoes from the past a dramatic folk-piety and even witchcraft surviving in high-rise flats.

The transformation is partly due to "the coming of the water." Often attributed to the great aqueduct completed by the Duce in 1939, in reality this owes far more to modern wells 200 metres deep; the rainfall in winter has always been high and, as Henry Swinburne observed, it must go somewhere. Not only has the water made life more agreeable for everybody, but it has done wonders for farming. Malaria has been eradicated before 1945, quinine was part of the staple diet in low-lying areas, but pesticides have wiped out the anopheles mosquito.

The latifondisti now farm the land themselves, using the latest machinery instead of work-gangs. (Several of these gentleman-farmers bear some of the oldest names among those of the historic n.o.bility.) Seventy per cent of Italy's fruit and vegetables comes from Apulia, while Apulian oil provides a third of the peninsula's entire output and Apulian wine a sixth. In addition, early vegetables for Northern Europe are grown here on a ma.s.sive scale. Even so, the old high-wheeled Apulian cart can occasionally be seen, while the short-handled mattock that crippled their fathers is still used by a few peasant smallholders, although these are a fast dwindling breed.

Bari, whose population has risen to 350,000, flourishes so much that Northerners call it the 'Milan of the South'. Besides producing tyres and other rubber goods on a huge scale, it has factories that specialise in electronics and micro-chips, while the port is busier than ever, playing an increasingly vital role in the commercial life of the Adriatic. The university has a particularly fine record of industrial research, although it is probably best known for a faculty of agriculture from which the entire region benefits. It also supplies Italy with countless lawyers, including many judges and a host of distinguished advocates.

The Feast of St Nicholas is celebrated as devoutly as ever. Nowadays Russian pilgrims come too, his crypt chapel in the basilica resounding with Slavonic chant since he has always been one of the great miracle-workers of Holy Russia. These pilgrims also recall how another St Nicholas (canonised in 2000) prayed here in 1892, when he was still the young Tsarevich.

Mercifully, industrialisation affects only one or two other small areas, such as the steel-works at Taranto or the oil-refinery at Brindisi. What really does hurt the landscape, however, are the blocks of hideous high-rise flats, tall, grey and forbidding, that are starting to obscure some of the little white cities.

In many places serious social problems have resulted from moving large numbers of people into flats like these, problems compounded by the spread of drugs since the early 1980s. Another worry is the influx of would-be immigrants who enter from Albania, Montenegro or North Africa; troops based at Bari patrol the coast to intercept them. (If caught, these unfortunate people are treated with considerably more humanity than in other Mediterranean countries.) Yet there is plenty of hope for the future, and with their growing wealth the Apulians feel a justifiable optimism.

Judging from all the books published at Bari, the Apulians must be fascinated by their history. Castles and cathedrals are very well maintained, with an admirable programme of restoration. (Sadly, despite the efforts of the World Monuments Fund this does not apply to the grotto churches, where the frescoes continue to fade). Traditional peasant food, not so long ago considered quite unfit for gentry, now appears in the smartest restaurants. La Cucina Pugliese (The Pugliese Cuisine), based on fish, pasta and vegetables, has seen a triumphant revival, the difference being that while in former days one of its dishes was an entire meal, often a selection of them are now served as an hors d' oeuvres. Even the Apulian mafia bear a t.i.tle redolent of history, La Sacra Corona Unita (United Sacred Crown), which seems to hint at memories of the old brigands and the war to save the Mezzogiorno from Northern invasion although the brigands never dealt in drugs, Russian prost.i.tutes or illegal immigrants nor did they blow up school children, as happened recently in Brindisi.

With its low white cliffs along the Adriatic and its long sandy beaches along the Ionian Sea, and with some really excellent hotels, Apulia's tourist potential is beginning to be exploited. This is scarcely surprising since the region has so many attractive features. It will always be a paradise for everybody interested in cla.s.sical history or architecture while, if reserved, its charming inhabitants seem to welcome visitors.

Although hardships of the sort described in our book are fortunately a thing of the past, they have bequeathed some very impressive qualities. Amongst them is an awe-inspiring capacity for grinding hard work and a razor-sharp instinct for survival, which will ensure Apulia's success in the difficult new Europe.

Acknowledgements.

WE WOULD LIKE TO THANK, in particular: H. E. Dr. Boris Bianchieri, formerly Italian Amba.s.sador in London; Professor Rosangela Barone of the Italian Cultural Inst.i.tute; Professor Antonio Graniti of Bari University, Don Riccardo Tomacelli-Filomarino (Duca di Torre a Mare) and Donna Irene Tomacelli-Filomarino, and our agent Andrew Lownie.

We are also grateful to Don Gennaro del Balzo, Don Grazio Gianfreda (Parocco of Otranto Cathedral), Don Giuseppe Civerra of the Santuario S. Salvatore, Andria, and Dr. Italo Palasciano, who gave us otherwise un.o.btainable information.

We owe a lot to the people of Gioia del Colle, above all to the brothers Giuseppe, Giovanni and Lucio Romano.

We would also like to thank Ellie Shillito of Haus Publishing for her patience and unfailing help in preparing the new edition.

Picture credits.

The authors and publishers wish to express their thanks to the following sources of ill.u.s.trative material for permission to reproduce it. They will make the proper acknowledgements in future editions in the event that any omissions have occurred.

London Library: chapters 13, 22, 35, 47, 54, 55. Marc.o.k: chapter 16. Susan Mountgarret: chapters 3, 9, 17, 18, 23, 24, 27, 31, 32, 34, 36, 44, 45, 48, 50. Zhebiton: chapter 37.

Further Reading.

THE BOOKS used by eighteenth century travellers were Pietro Giannone's "Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli", first published in 1723, and the 25 volume "Raccolta di tutti i pi rinomati scrittori dell'Istoria Generale del Regno", published between 1769 and 1777, and which includes the early histories of such writers as Pontano and Porzio (see below). For art they consulted Bernado de Dominici's delightfully scandalous "Vite dei Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti Napoletani", which appeared in 1742. Nineteenth century travellers supplemented these with Coletta's "Storia del Reame di Napoli dal 17341825", which came out in 1848, and Giustiniani's "Dizionario Geografico", published in ten volumes between 1797 and 1805. The English read Swinburne and Keppel Craven but Berkeley remained unknown until the 1870s.

Accounts by travellers.

Berkeley, G.: The Works of George Berkeley, Oxford 1871 Bertoldi, G.: Memoirs of the Secret Societies of the South of Italy, London 1821 Blewitt, O.: A Handbook for Travellers in Southern Italy; being a guide to the continental portion of the Two Sicilies, London 1853 Bourget, P.: Sensations d'Italie, Paris 1891 Castellan, A.L.: Lettres sur I'Italie, Paris 1819 Church, E.M.: Sir Richard Church in Italy and Greece, London 1895 Courier, P.: Oeuvres completes, Brussels 1828 Craven, R. Keppel: A Tour through the Southern Provinces of the Kingdom of Naples, London 1821 Diehl, C.: L'Art Byzantin dans l'Italie Meridionale, Paris 1894 --Manuel d'art byzantin, Paris 1925 Douglas, N.: Old Calabria, London 1915 Figuier, C.: L'Italie d'apres nature, L'Italie Meridionale, Paris 1868 Gissing, G.: By the Ionian Sea, London 1901 Gregorovius, F.: Wanderjahre in Italien: Apulische Landschaften, Leipzig 1889 Hare, A.J.C.: Cities of Southern Italy, London 1883 Horace, Q.F.: Satires and Epistles (trans. N. Rudd), London 1973 --Odes and Epodes (trans W.G. Shepherd), London 1983 Hutton, E.: Naples and Southern Italy, London 1915 Lear, E.: Journals of a Landscape Painter in Southern Calabria and the Kingdom of Naples, London 1852 Lenormant, F.: A Travers l'Apulie et la Lucanie, Paris 1883 -- La Grande Grece, Paris 188184 Macfarlane, C.: The Lives and Exploits of Banditti and Robbers, London 1833 -- Popular Customs, Sports and Recollections of the South of Italy, London 1846 Pacich.e.l.li, G.B.: Il Regno di Napoli in prospecttiva, Napoli 1703 Ramage, C.T.: The Nooks and By-Ways of Italy, Liverpool 1868 Richard, J.C. Abbe de Saint-Non: Voyages pittoresques ou descriptions du Royaume de Naples et de Sicile, Paris 178186 Riedesel, H von,: Reise durch Sizielien und Gross Griechenland, Zurich 1771 Ross, J.: The Land of Manfred, London 1889 -- The Fourth Generation: Reminiscences, London 1912 Salis Marschlins, C.U. de: Reisen in verschiedenen Provinzen des Konigreichs Neapel, Zurich 1793 Sitwell, Sir O: Discursions on Travel, Art and Life, London 1925 Swinburne, H.: Travels in the Two Sicilies in the Years 1777, 1778, 1779 and 1780, London 1783 Yriarte, C.: Les Bords de l'Adriatique et de Montenegro, Paris 1878 Chronicles and early histories Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinary of Benjamin of Tudela, London 1907 Bernard the Wise: The Voyage of Bernard the Wise (in Early Travels in Palestine, ed. T. Wright), London 1848 Caesar, Julius: The Civil War (trans. J.F. Gardner), London 1967 Chirulli, I.: Historia Cronologica della Martina Franca, Venice 1752 Comnena, A.: The Alexiad (trans. E.R.A. Sewter), London 1969 De Dominici, B.: Vite dei Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti Napoletani, Naples 1742 Diogenes Laertes, Lives of the Philosophers Doria, P.M.: Vite civile, Naples 1710 -- Ma.s.sime del governo spagnolo a Napoli, Naples 1973 Frederick II of Hohenstaufen: The Art of Hunting with Birds (trans. A.C. Wood and F.M. Fyfe), Boston 1955 Giacomo the Notary: Cronica di Napoli. Notaro Giacomo (ed. P. Garzilli), Naples 1845 Giannone, P.: Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli, Naples 1723 Gibbon, E.: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London 1963 Giovio, P.: Historiarum sui temporis (in Opere scelte ed. C. Panigada), Bari 1931 -- Commentatarii delle cose de Turchi...e la vita di Scanderbeg, Venice 1541 Guicciardini, F.: Istoria di Italia, Pisa 1819 Livy: Rome and the Mediterranean (trans. H. Bettenson), London 1976 -- The War with Hannibal (trans. A de Selincourt), London 1965 Matteo di Giovenazzo: I Diurnali di Matteo Spinelli di Giovinazzo 124768 (in Cronisti e scrittori sincroni napoletani ed. G.del Re), Naples 1845 Misson, M.: Voyage d'Italie, 5th ed. Paris 1722 Nicholas of Jamsilla: Delle geste di Federico II imperatore e de' suoi figli Corrado e Manfredi, re di Puglia e di Sicilia (in Cronisti e scrittori sincroni napoletani ed. G. del Re), Naples 1845 Nugent, T.: The Grand Tour, London 1756 Pliny the Elder: The Natural History of Pliny (trans. J. Bostock & H.J. Riley), London 185557 Plutarch: The Age of Alexander (trans. I. Scott-Kilvert), London 1973 Polybius: The Rise of the Roman Empire (trans. I. Scott-Kilvert), London 1979 Porzio, C.: La Congiura de' Baroni del Regno di Napoli contro il Re Ferdinando Primo, Rome 1565 -- Relazione del regno di Napoli... tra il 1577 e 1579 (in Collezione di opere inedite orare di storia Napoletana ed. S. Volpicella), Naples 1839 Pratilli, F.M.: La Via Appia, riconosciuto e descritta da Roma a Brindisi, Naples 1745 Saewulf: Early travels in Palestine, comprising the narratives of Arnulf, Willibald... Saewulf, London 1848 Sandys, G.: A relation of a journey begun in An. Dom. 1610, London 1615 Salimbene: From St Francis to Dante... the Chronicle of the Franciscan Salimbene. Ed. G.C. Coulton, London 1908 Strabo: The Geography (trans. A.C. Jones), London 191732 Villani, G.: Croniche fiorentine, Florence 1823 Virgil: The Aeniad (trans. Dryden), London 1906 -- The Georgics (trans. C. Day Lewis), Oxford 1983.

William of Malmesbury: Gesta Regum Anglorum.

Other works.

Absalom, R.: Italy since 1800, London 1995.

Abulafia D.: Frederick II. A medieval emperor London and NY, 1988; Acton, Sir H.: The Bourbons of Naples, London 1956 -- The Last Bourbons of Naples, London 1961 Belli D'Elia, P. et al.: La Puglia fra Bisanzio e l'occidente, Milan 1980 -- La Puglia tra barocco e rococo, Milan 1983 -- Les Pouilles Romaines, Paris 1988 Beraut, J.: La colonisation greque de l'Italie meridionale et de la Sicile dans l'antiquite, Paris 1957 Bertaux, E.: L'Art dans I'Italie Meridionale, Paris 1904 Blunt, A.: Baroque and Rococo, London 1978 Blunt, J.J.: Vestiges of Ancient Manners and Customs Discoverable in Modern Italy and Sicily, London 1823 Boardman, J.: The Greeks Overseas, London 1964 Bologna, F.: Pittori alla Corte Angioina, Rome 1969 Brandi, C.: Martina Franca, Milan 1968 Briggs, M.: In the Heel of Italy, London 1910 Bronzini, G.B.: h.o.m.o Laborans, Manduria 1985 Cal Mariani, M.S.: L'Arte del Duecento in Puglia, Turin 1984 Carano Donvito G.: Storia di Gioia del Colle dagli origini ai primi del secolo XX, Putignano 1966 Ca.s.siano, A.: Il Barocco a Lecce e nel Salento, Rome 1995 Cazzata, M.: Guida ai castelli pugliesi: i. La provincia di Lecce, Galatina 1997 Chalandon, F.: Histoire de la Domination Normande en Italie et en Sicile, Paris 1907 Coco, P.: Francavilla Fontana nella luce della storia, Taranto 1941 Colletta, P.: Storia del reame di Napoli del 1734 sino al 1825, Florence 1848 Cornell, T.J. The Beginnings of Rome, London 1995 Croce, B.: Storia del Regno di Napoli, Bari 1931 Cucciolla, A. and Morelli, D.: The Urban Development of Bari, Berlin 1984 Cutolo, A.: Gli Angioini, Florence 1934 De Cesare, R.: La Fine di un Regno, Citta di Castello 1909 Dell'Aquila, Franco & Ma.s.sina, Aldo: Le Chiese Rupestri di Puglia e Basilicata, Bari 1998 De Sivo, G.: Storia delle Due Sicilie del 1847 al 1861, Trieste 1868 De Vita, R.: Castelli torri ed opere fortificate di Puglia, Bari 1974 -- Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Rome 1960 Di Benedetto, D., Greco, A., and Del Vecchio, F.: Guida bibliografica di cripte, ipogei e insidiamenti rupestri dell' Puglia, Bari 1990 Dunrobin, J.: The Western Greeks, Oxford 1948 f.a.giolo, M. and Cazzolo, V.: Lecce, Bari 1984 Farase-Sperken, C.: La pittura dell' Ottocento in Puglia: i protagonisti, le spere, i luoghi, Bari 1996 Flaubert G.: Voyages, Paris 1948 Forsyth, J.: Remarks on Antiquities, Arts, and Letters during an excursion in Italy in the years 1802 and 1803, London 1816 Frazer, J.G.: The Golden Bough, London 190713 Fronda Michael P.: Between Rome and Carthage; Southern Italy during the Second Punic War, C.U.P 2010 Galanti, G.M.: Relazione sull'Italia Meridionale, Milan 1791 Galiano,A.: Il Guercio delle Puglia, Mian 1967 Gattini, M.: I priorati, i baliagi e le commende del Sovrano Militare Ordine di San Giovanni nelle provincie meridionali d'Italia, Rome 1928 Gay, J.: L'Italie meridionale et l'Empire byzantin, Paris 1904 Gelao, Clara & Tragni, Bianca: Il Presepe Pugliese, Bari 2000 Gianfreda, G.: Basilica Cattedrale di Otranto, Galatina 1987 -- Il Monachesimo Italo-Greco in Otranto, Galatina 1977 Ginsborg, P.: A History of Contemporary Italy, London 1990 Gorze, H.: Castel del Monte, geometric manual of the Middle Ages, Munich 1998 Guillou, A: Studies in Byzantine Italy, London 1970 Kantorowicz, E.: Frederick II 11941250, New York 1957 Lacaita, C.: An Italian Englishman: Sir James Lacaita, London 1933 Leonard, E.G.: Les Angevins de Naples, Paris 1954 Levi, C.: Christ stopped at Eboli, London 1987 Lucarelli, A.: Il brigantaggio politico del Mezzogiorno d'Italia doppo la seconda restaurazione borbonica, 18151818: Gaetano Vardarelli e Ciro Annichiarico, Bari 1942 -- Il Brigantaggio politico delle Puglie doppo 1860: Il Sergente Romano, Bari 1946 Lucarelli, A.: La Puglia nella rivoluzione napolitana del 1799, Manduria 1998 -- La Puglia nel Risorgimento, Bari 193153 Lumley, R. and Morris, J.: The New History of the Italian South, Exeter 1997 Maffei, A.: Brigand Life in Italy: a history of Bourbonist reaction, London 1865 Merlino, F.S.: L'Italie telle qu'elle est, Paris 1890 Mola, M. de, and Palasciano, G.: Le chiese rurali del territorio di Fasano, Fasano 1987 Mommsen, T., The History of Rome, London 1894 Mongiello, L.: Le ma.s.serie di Puglia: organismi, architettonici ed ambiente territoriale, Bari 1996 Monnier, M.: Histoire du Brigandage dans l'Italie meridionale, Paris 1862 Norwich, J.J.: The Normans in the South, London 1967 -- The Kingdom in the Sun, London 1970 Palasciano, I.: Alberobello nel sette e ottocento, Fasano 1987 Paone, N.: La Transumanza, Isernia 1987 Pasculli Ferrara, M.: Arte napoletana in Puglia del XVI al XVIII secolo, Fasano 1983 Patrunio, L.: Puglia e Basilicata: mura, castelli e dimorre, Milan 1995 Patrunio, L.: Puglia e Basilicata: l'uomo e le sue tradizioni, Milan 1997 Penkovsky, V.: Private Army, London, 1950 Perkins, C.: Italian Sculptors, London 1868 Petrignani, M. and Porsia, F.: Bari, Bari 1982 Pizzigallo, M.: La collegiata di Martina Franca, Fasano 1976.

-- Uomini e vicende di Martina, Fasano 1986 Potter, T.W.: Roman Italy, London 1987 Prandi, A.: In terra di Taranto, Milan 1970.

Reumont, A von.: Die Carafa von Maddaloni, Berlin 1851 Ripabottoni, A.: Padre Pio of Pietrelcina, San Giovanni Rotondo 1987 Ruotolo, G.: La Quarta mafia: storie di mafia in Puglia, Naples 1994 Ruppi, C.F.: Alla scoperta di un angolo di Puglia, Conversano 1971 Simone, L. De: Lecce e I suoi monumenti, Lecce 1964 Smith, Sir W.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, London 1904 -- A Smaller Cla.s.sical Dictionary, London 1910 Snowdon, F.M.: Violence and Great Estates in Southern Italy: Apulia 19001922, C.U.P. 1986 Tancredi, G.: Il Gargano nel Risorgimento, Foggia 1948.

Touring Club Italiano: Puglia, Milan 1978 Villari, R.: Il Sud nella storia d'Italia, Bari 1966 -- La rivolta antispagnola a Napoli, Rome 1967 Wuillermier, P.: Tarente des origine a la conquete romaine, Paris 1939.