With equality it was quite different. In all the lands annexed to France or included within the radius of Napoleon's direct influence, the forms and rights of feudalism and serfdom were abolished, and the social equalities embodied _Code Napoleon_ were guaranteed.

Throughout southern Germany, the Netherlands, the Iberian peninsula, and a great part of Italy, as well as in France, the social aspects of the old regime underwent a thorough transformation; interior customs lines, private roadways, toll-bridges, and internal trade restrictions were swept away; in the place of large landed estates, with their old- time n.o.ble owners and their wretched peasants attached to the soil and suffering from burdensome t.i.thes and dues and personal services, appeared a numerous cla.s.s of peasant proprietors, owning and tilling their own fields, free to buy, sell, or exchange them, or to move away to the growing towns. Outside of Napoleon's direct influence, the land reforms of Baron vom Stein in Prussia reflected the same spirit of the age. These social gains in the direction of equality were, in fact, the most permanent achievements of the Napoleonic Era: in spite of later reaction, it was beyond the reach of possibility to restore the inequalities of the outworn feudal system.

[Sidenote: "Fraternity" under Napoleon]

[Sidenote: The Emphasis on Nationalism]

Fraternity, or national patriotism, received a marked impetus during the era. Communicated from France by the ardor of the revolutionary and Napoleonic soldiers, it evoked ready response not only in Poland, Holland, Portugal, Spain, England, and Russia, in which countries it was already existent, but also in the Germanies and in the Italian states, where centuries of petty strife and jealousy seemed to have blotted it out forever. The significance of the Napoleonic period in the history of Germany is incalculable. The diminution of the number of states, the abolition of the effete Holy Roman Empire, the regeneration of Prussia, the War of Liberation, the Battle of the Nations, the consciousness of common interests, and the wave of patriotism which swept over the whole German folk, presaged before the lapse of many decades the political unification of the Germanies and the erection of a powerful national state. Nor were the Italians devoid of a similar national feeling. The fame of Napoleon, a man of Italian blood, the temporary establishment of a "kingdom of Italy," the t.i.tle of "king of Rome" conferred upon the infant heir to Napoleon's fortunes, the social reforms and the patriotic awakening throughout the peninsula,--all betokened a national destiny for the whole Italian people.

[Sidenote: Minor Political Happenings]

In minor political ways the Napoleonic Era was not without significance. The Tsar was enabled finally to acquire Finland, Poland, and Turkish land as far as the River Pruth, Minor thus completing the work of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great, and rounding out the European frontier of Russia to its present extent. Sweden secured Norway and a new dynasty, which, descended from Marshal Bernadotte, the interesting son of an obscure French lawyer, has reigned ever since. In the case of Portugal, the flight of the royal family to Brazil in 1807 had the curious effect of causing them for several years to hold their court in their princ.i.p.al colony and to govern the mother-country through regents.

[Sidenote: Remarkable Significance of the Era to Great Britain]

[Sidenote: Colonies]

[Sidenote: Commerce]

Beyond continental Europe the period was of utmost importance. The maritime and commercial supremacy of Great Britain, which had been seriously shaken by the War of American Independence, was regained in the course of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Of course the United States continued independent. But the great victories of Lord Nelson over the French fleets rendered Great Britain the true mistress of the seas; and she proceeded to utilize her naval superiority to appropriate what remaining French colonies most suited her purpose. In this way she possessed herself of Malta (1800), St. Lucia, Tobago (1803), and Mauritius (1810). Then, too, the dependence of Holland upon France, involuntary though it was most of the time, afforded her an opportunity to seize such valuable Dutch colonies as Ceylon (1795), Guiana (1803), and South Africa (1806). The sorry subservience of the Spanish Bourbons to Napoleon gave Great Britain a similar chance to prey upon Spanish commerce, to occupy some Spanish colonies, and to open others to her own trade: at this time the British took possession of Trinidad (1797) and Honduras (1798) and sent raiding expeditions against Buenos Aires and Montevideo (1806-1807). The subsequent Peninsular War, in which, as we have seen, the British cooperated with the Spaniards in maintaining the latter's freedom against Napoleon, put an end to the hostile British incursions into the Spanish colonies, but it worked in another way to Great Britain's advantage. The Spanish colonies--Mexico, Central America, and the greater part of South America--were thrown into grave administrative perplexities by the conflict of authority between the two Bourbon kings, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, and between King Joseph Bonaparte and the revolutionary _juntas_; the colonists gradually got into the habit of managing their own affairs and of opening their ports to British trade; and the result was that by 1814, when Ferdinand was at length firmly established upon the Spanish throne, he was confronted by colonists, the greater number of whom had all along professed allegiance to him, but who now, accustomed to the advantages of free trade and practical independence, were resolved to maintain them. The disruption of the Spanish colonial empire was a direct outcome of Napoleon's career, and next to the colonists themselves the British were the chief beneficiaries. In general, the new colonies which Great Britain acquired were intended either, as in the case of Malta, Mauritius, Ceylon, and South Africa, to strengthen her hold upon India, or, as in the case of the others, to develop her trade with Spanish America.

[Sidenote: Industry]

This naval predominance of Great Britain and the expansion of her commerce and colonial empire synchronized with the rapid development of the Industrial Revolution within England. It was the ceaseless operation of spinning frames and power looms, of blast furnaces and steam engines, in a country on which the French emperor's army had never trod, that most truly worked the downfall of Napoleon.

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE BONAPARTE FAMILY]

ADDITIONAL READING

TEXTBOOK NARRATIVES. H. E. Bourne, _The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1763-1815_ (1914), ch. xvii-xxvii; J. H. Robinson and C. A.

Beard, _The Development of Modern Europe_, Vol. I (1907), ch. xiv, xv; H. M. Stephens, _Revolutionary Europe, 1789-1815_ (1893), ch.

vii-xi; J. H. Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-1815_ (1895), ch. vii-xi; J. A. R. Marriott, _The Remaking of Modern Europe, 1789-1878_ (1910), ch. vii-xi; H. T. Dyer, _A History of Modern Europe from the Fall of Constantinople_, 3d ed. rev. by Arthur Ha.s.sall (1901), ch. lxi-lxvii; C. A. Fyffe, _A History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878_ (1896), ch. v-xii.

STANDARD BIOGRAPHIES OF NAPOLEON. Two suggestive outlines, either one of which may serve as an admirable introduction to more careful study: Herbert Fisher, _Napoleon_ (1912), in the "Home University Library"; and R. M. Johnston, _Napoleon, a Short Biography_ (1910). August Fournier, _Napoleon I_, 3d rev. ed., 3 vols. (1914), perhaps the best biography, a German work, scholarly, well written, and impartial, trans. into English from the 2d German edition by A. E. Adams, 2 vols.

(1912). J. H. Rose, _The Life of Napoleon I_, new ed., 2 vols. in i (1907), a highly prized work, mainly political, and thoroughly British in tone; and, by the same author, _The Personality of Napoleon_ (1912), a collection of interesting lectures. W. M. Sloane, _The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte_, rev. and enlarged ed., 4 vols. (1910), confined largely to the personal history of Napoleon, with special reference to his earlier years, based upon source-material, and profusely ill.u.s.trated. J. C. Ropes, _The First Napoleon_ (1900), a military and political outline by an authority on several of the great campaigns of the emperor. Pierre Lanfrey, _The History of Napoleon the First_, Eng.

trans., 2d ed., 4 vols. (1894), a severe arraignment of the character and policies of Napoleon by a celebrated French scholar, reaches only to the close of the year 1811. Adolphe Thiers, _Histoire du consulat et de l'empire_, 20 vols., highly laudatory of Napoleon, and should be read as an antidote to Lanfrey; the portion of the work down to 1807 has been translated into English by D. F. Campbell, 2 vols. in 1 (1845). H. A. Taine, _The Modern Regime_, Eng. trans. by John Durand, 2 vols. (1890-1894), a brilliant and fascinating a.n.a.lysis of Napoleon's genius and a critical estimate of the importance of the inst.i.tutions established by him. Frederic Ma.s.son, _Napoleon et sa famille_, 5th ed., 12 vols. (1897-1915), an encyclopedia of information concerning the emperor's numerous relatives, and, by the same author, _Napoleon a Sainte-Helene_ (1912). Three volumes of an elaborate history of Napoleon appeared in 1912-1914, the work of a well-known German specialist, F. M. Kircheisen, _Napoleon I: sein Leben und seine Zeit_.

See also, on the early life of Bonaparte, Oscar Browning, _Napoleon: the First Phase, 1769-1793_ (1905); and, on his final years at St.

Helena, Lord Rosebery, _Napoleon: the Last Phase_ (1900). An illuminating work is that of A. M. Broadley, _Napoleon in Caricature, 1795-1821_, with an introductory essay by J. H. Rose, 2 vols. (1911).

ILl.u.s.tRATIVE SOURCE MATERIAL. In addition to the indispensable _Readings in Modern European History_ by J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard (1909), the following selections from the ma.s.ses of source material are especially serviceable: D. A. Bingham, _A Selection from the Letters and Despatches of the First Napoleon_, 3 vols. (1884); _Memoirs of the History of France during the Reign of Napoleon, dictated by him at St.

Helena to the generals who shared his captivity_, Eng. trans., 2d ed., 4 vols. (1823-1824); the correspondence of Napoleon I, published in French under the auspices of Napoleon III, 32 vols. (1858-1870), and Napoleon's military correspondence published under the auspices of the Ministry of War of the Third French Republic; _Narrative of Captain Coignet_, new French ed. (1909), Eng. trans. by Mrs. Carey, the story of the life of a soldier in the ranks. Of the abundant memoirs of the period, the best are those of Mme. de Remusat, covering the years 1802- 1808, hostile but informing, Eng. trans. by Mrs. Cashel Hoey and John Lillie (1891); Fauvalet de Bourrienne, Eng. trans. by J. S. Memes, 3 vols. (1892); Antoine de Marbot, 3 vols.; C. F. de Meneval, covering the years 1802-1815, 3 vols. (1894); A. F. Miot de Melito, Eng. trans.

(1881); L. P. de Segur, 3 vols; and C. M. de Talleyrand-Perigord, Eng.

trans., 5 vols. (1891-1892). For further bibliographical suggestions, see F. M. Kircheisen, _Bibliography of Napoleon_ (1902). An extended bibliography is in course of publication by an Italian scholar, Alberto Lumbroso, 5 parts to date (1894-1914).

THE ERA OF NAPOLEON. A very brief summary: Charles Seign.o.bos, _History of Contemporary Civilization_, trans. by J. A. James (1909), pp. 150- 185. Standard general works: _Cambridge Modern History_, Vol. IX (1906); _Histoire generale_, Vol. IX; _History of All Nations_, Vol.

XVI, _The French Revolution and the Rise of Napoleon_, ch. viii, ix, and Vol. XVII, _The Napoleonic Empire_, by Theodor Flathe; Wilhelm Oncken, _Das Zeitalter der Revolution, des Kaiserreiches, und der Befreiungskriege_, 2 vols. (1884-1886); emile Bourgeois, _Manuel historique de politique etrangere, 4th ed., Vol. II (1909), ch. viii- xviii. Standard works on special phases of the era: Armand Lefebvre, _Histoire des cabinets de l'Europe pendant le consulat et l'empire 1800-1815_, 2d ed., 5 vols. (1866-1869), an admirable diplomatic history; Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la revolution francaise, 8 vols.

(1885-1904), a standard authoritative work, of which Vols. VI-VIII treat of the communication of revolutionary ideas to Europe during the Era of Napoleon; L. de Lanzac de Laborie, _Paris sous Napoleon_, 8 vols. (1905-1913), invaluable for a detailed study of French life under Napoleon; emile Leva.s.seur, _Histoire des cla.s.ses ouvrieres et de l'industrie en France de 1789 a 1870_, Vol. I (1903), Livre II, _Le consulat et l'empire_, for social history; Jean Jaures, _Histoire socialiste, 1789-1900_, Vol. VI, by Paul Brousse and Henri Turot, _Le consulat et l'empire, 1799-1815_ (1905), likewise for social history; J. 0. B. de Cleron d'Haussonville, _L'eglise romaine et le premier empire, 1800-1814_, 5 vols. (1868-1869), for ecclesiastical affairs; Alphonse Aulard, _Napoleon I-er et la monopole universitaire_ (1911), for educational matters; Henri Welschinger, _La censure sous le premier empire_ (1882), for restrictions on personal liberty in France: and for French plots and attempts against Napoleon, the works of Ernest Daudet, particularly _La police et les chouans sous le consulat et l'empire, 1800-1815_ (1895), _Histoire de l'emigration_, 3 vols. (1886-1890), and _L'exil et la mort du General Moreau_ (1909); and Sir John Hall, _General Pichegru's Treason_ (1916). MILITARY CAMPAIGNS OF NAPOLEON.

T. A. Dodge, _Napoleon: a History of the Art of War_, 4 vols. (1904- 1907), the work of an American army officer, not always accurate, but the best general account in English; A. T. Mahan, _The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812_, 10th ed., 2 vols. (1898), a justly famous book, especially valuable for the Continental System. Special campaigns: Albert Vandal, _Napoleon et Alexander Ier_, 3d ed., 3 vols. (1893-1896); R. G. Burton, _Napoleon's Campaigns in Italy, 1796-1797 and 1800_ (1912), and, by the same author, _From Boulogne to Austerlitz: Napoleon's Campaign of 1805_ (1912); the works of F. L. Petre, particularly _Napoleon's Conquest of Prussia, 1806_ (1907), _Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807_ (1906), _Napoleon and the Archduke Charles_ (1908), _Napoleon's Last Campaign in Germany, 1813_ (1912), _Napoleon at Bay_ (1914); Henry Houssaye, _Jena et la campagne de 1806_, with introduction by Louis Madelin (1912); edouard Driault, _Austerlitz: la fin du Saint-Empire, 1804-1808_ (1912); Charles Oman, _History of the Peninsular War_, a monumental work extending to the year 1812, 5 vols. (1902-1914), and, by the same author, _Wellington's Army, 1809-1814_ (1912); Hermann Baumgarten, _Geschichte Spaniens vom Ausbruch der franzosischen Revolution bis auf unsere Tage_, Vol. I (1865), a scholarly German treatment of the Peninsular campaign; R. G. Burton, _Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_ (1914); F. W. O. Mayc.o.c.k, _The Invasion of France, 1814_ (1915); Oscar Browning, _The Fall of Napoleon_ (1907), useful for the years 1813-1815; E. F. Henderson, _Blucher and the Uprising of Prussia against Napoleon, 1806-1815_ (1911), in the "Heroes of the Nations" Series; D. P. Barton, _Bernadotte: the First Phase, 1763-1799_ (1914); A. F. Becke, _Napoleon and Waterloo_, 2 vols. (1914); J. C.

Ropes, _The Campaign of Waterloo_, 2d ed. (1893).

THE GERMANIES IN THE ERA OF NAPOLEON. Brief accounts: G. M. Priest, _Germany since 1740_ (1915), ch. iv-vii; Ferdinand Schevill, _The Making of Modern Germany_ (1916), ch. iii; E. F. Henderson, _A Short History of Germany_, Vol. II (1902), ch. vi, vii, and, by the same author, the book on Blucher listed in the preceding paragraph; C. T.

Atkinson, _A History of Germany, 1715-1815_ (1908), almost exclusively a military history; H. A. L. Fisher, _Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship: Germany_ (1903), instructive and stimulating. The best and most thorough work in English is J. R. Seeley, _Life and Times of Stein, or Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age_, 2 vols. (1879).

Standard German works, all highly patriotic in tone: Ludwig Hausser, _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Grundung des deutschen Bundes_, 4th ed., 4 vols. (1869); K. T. von Heigel, _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflosung des alten Reiches_, 2 vols. (1899-1911); Hans von Zwiedineck- Sudenhorst, _Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflosung des alten bis zur Errichtung des neuen Kaiserreiches_, _1806-1871_, 3 vols. (1897-1905), of which Vol. I deals with the years 1806-1815; Heinrich von Treitschke, _Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_, 5 vols.

(1890-1896), of which Vol. I, in Eng. trans. (1915), covers the period down to 1814; Heinrich Ulmann, _Geschichte der Befreiungskriege, 1813 und 1814_, 2 vols. (1914-1915), not so much military as political and diplomatic; Hans Delbruck, _Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neidhardt von Gneisenau_, 3d rev. ed. (1913). A reliable French view is that of Ernest Denis, _L'Allemagne, 1789-1810_ (1896).

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE ERA OF NAPOLEON. Sir Herbert Maxwell, _A Century of Empire_, Vol. I, _1801-1832_ (1909), political and conservative; G.

C. Broderick and J. K. Fotheringham, _Political History of England, 1801-1837_ (1906), accurate but dry, containing valuable bibliographies; J. H. Rose, _William Pitt and the Great War_ (1911), a notable contribution, and, by the same author, though not so excellent, _Pitt and Napoleon: Essays and Letters_ (1912); W. C. Russell, Horatio Nelson (1890), a convenient little biography in the "Heroes of the Nations" Series; A. T. Mahan, _The Life of Nelson, the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain_, 2 vols. (1897), a standard work; J. S.

Corbett, _Campaign of Trafalgar_ (1913), with reference to Pitt more than to Nelson; A. T. Mahan, _Sea Power in its Relation to the War of 1812_, 2 vols. (1905); J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British Army_, Vols. IV-VII (1906-1912), a monumental work on the British military campaigns from 1793 to 1810; Sir W. L. Clowes (editor), _The Royal Navy: a History_, Vol. IV (1899), ch. x.x.xiv-x.x.xvii, for the years 1792- 1802, and Vol. V (1900), for 1803-1815; J. W. Fortescue, _British Statesmen of the Great War, 1793-1814_ (1911), derogatory of Pitt and marked by zealous prejudice in favor of other Tory statesmen, especially Castlereagh and Liverpool; Sir Herbert Maxwell, _The Life of Wellington_, 2 vols. (1899); W. O'C. Morris, _Wellington, Soldier and Statesman_ (1904), in "Heroes of the Nations" Series; F. J. MacCunnan, _The Contemporary English View of Napoleon_ (1914), an interesting compilation.