III. _Rationalism_

The rationalistic temper may be observed in critical literature almost at the very beginning of the sixteenth century. This spirit of rationalism is observable throughout the Renaissance; and its general causes may be looked for in the liberation of the human reason by the Renaissance, in the growth of the sciences and arts, and in the reaction against mediaeval sacerdotalism and dogma. The causes of its development in literary criticism may be found not only in these but in several other influences of the period. The paganization of culture, the growth of rationalistic philosophies, with their all-pervading influence on arts and letters, and moreover the influence of Horace's _Ars Poetica_, with its ideal of "good sense," all tended to make the element of reason predominate in literature and in literary criticism.

In Vida the three elements which are at the bottom of cla.s.sicism, the imitation of the cla.s.sics, the imitation of nature, and the authority of reason, may all be found. Reason is for him the final test of all things:--

"Semper nutu rationis eant res."[284]

The function of the reason in art is, first, to serve as a standard in the choice and carrying out of the design, a bulwark against the operation of mere chance,[285] and secondly, to moderate the expression of the poet's own personality and pa.s.sion, a bulwark against the morbid subjectivity which is the horror of the cla.s.sical temperament.[286]

It has been said of Scaliger that he was the first modern to establish in a body of doctrine the princ.i.p.al consequences of the sovereignty of the reason in literature.[287] That was hardly his aim, and certainly not his attainment. But he was, at all events, one of the first modern critics to affirm that there is a standard of perfection for each specific form of literature, to show that this standard may be arrived at _a priori_ through the reason, and to attempt a formulation of such standard for each literary form. "Est in omni rerum genere unum primum ac r.e.c.t.u.m ad cuius tum norman, tum rationem caetera dirigenda sunt."[288]

This, the fundamental a.s.sumption of Scaliger's _Poetics_, is also one of the basic ideas of cla.s.sicism. Not only is there a standard, a norm, in every species of literature, but this norm can be definitely formulated and defined by means of the reason; and it is the duty of the critic to formulate this norm, and the duty of the poet to study and follow it without deviating from the norm in any way. Even Homer, as we have seen, is to be judged according to this standard arrived at through the reason. Such a method cuts off all possibility of novelty of form or expression, and holds every poet, ancient or modern, great or small, accountable to one and the same standard of perfection.

The growth and influence of rationalism in Italian criticism may be best observed by the gradual effect which its development had on the element of Aristotelianism. In other words, rationalism changed the point of view according to which the Aristotelian canons were regarded in the Italian Renaissance. The earlier Italian critics accepted their rules and precepts on the authority of Aristotle alone. Thus Trissino, at the beginning of the fifth section of his _Poetica_, finished in 1549, although begun about twenty years before, says, "I shall not depart from the rules and precepts of the ancients, and especially Aristotle."[289]

Somewhat later, in 1553, Varchi says, "Reason _and_ Aristotle are my _two_ guides."[290] Here the element of the reason first a.s.serts itself, but there is no intimation that the Aristotelian canons are in themselves reasonable. The critic has two guides, the individual reason and the Aristotelian rules, and each of these two guides is to serve wherever the other is found wanting. This same point of view is found a decade later in Ta.s.so, who says that the defenders of the unity of the epic poem have made "a shield of the authority of Aristotle, nor do they lack the arms afforded by the reason;"[291] and similarly, in 1583, Sir Philip Sidney says that the unity of time is demanded "both by Aristotle's precept and common reason."[292] Here both Ta.s.so and Sidney, while contending that the particular law under discussion is in itself reasonable, speak of Aristotle's _Poetics_ and the reason as separate and distinct authorities, and fail to show that Aristotle himself based all his precepts upon the reason. In Denores, a few years later, the development is carried one stage farther in the direction of the ultimate cla.s.sical att.i.tude, as when he speaks of "reason and Aristotle's _Poetics_, which is indeed founded on naught save reason."[293] This is as far as Italian criticism ever went. It was the function of neo-cla.s.sicism in France, as will be seen, to show that such a phrase as "reason _and_ Aristotle" is a contradiction in itself, that the Aristotelian canons and the reason are ultimately reducible to the same thing, and that not only what is in Aristotle will be found reasonable, but all that reason dictates for literary observance will be found in Aristotle.

Rationalism produced several very important results in literature and literary criticism during the sixteenth century. In the first place, it tended to give the reason a higher place in literature than imagination or sensibility. Poetry, it will be remembered, was often cla.s.sified by Renaissance critics as one of the logical sciences; and nothing could be in greater accord with the neo-cla.s.sical ideal than the a.s.sertion of Varchi and others that the better logician the poet is, the better he will be as a poet. Sainte-Beuve gives Scaliger the credit of having first formulated this theory of literature which subordinates the creative imagination and poetic sensibility to the reason;[294] but the credit or discredit of originating it does not belong exclusively to Scaliger. This tendency toward the apotheosis of the reason was diffused throughout the sixteenth century, and does not characterize any individual author. The Italian critics of this period were the first to formulate the cla.s.sical ideal that the standard of perfection may be conceived of by the reason, and that perfection is to be attained only by the realization of this standard.

The rationalistic spirit also tended to set the seal of disapprobation on extravagances of any sort. Subjectivity and individualism came to be regarded more and more, at least in theory, as out of keeping with cla.s.sical perfection. Clearness, reasonableness, sociableness, were the highest requirements of art; and any excessive expression of the poet's individuality was entirely disapproved of. Man, not only as a reasonable being, but also as a social being, was regarded as the basis of literature. Boileau's lines:--

"Que les vers ne soient pas votre eternel emploi; Cultivez vos amis, soyez homme de foi; C'est peu d'etre agreable et charmant dans un livre, Il faut savoir encore et converser et vivre,"[295]

were antic.i.p.ated in Berni's _Dialogo contra i Poeti_, written in 1526, though not published until 1537. This charming invective is directed against the fashionable literature of the time, and especially against all professional poets. Writing from the standpoint of a polished and rationalistic society, Berni lays great stress on the fact that poetry is not to be taken too seriously, that it is a pastime, a recreation for cultured people, a mere bagatelle; and he professes to despise those who spend all their time in writing verses. The vanity, the uselessness, the extravagances, and the ribaldry of the professional poets receive his hearty contempt; only those who write verses for pastime merit approbation. "Are you so stupid," he cries, "as to think that I call any one who writes verses a poet, and that I regard such men as Vida, Pontano, Bembo, Sannazaro, as mere poets? I do not call any one a poet, and condemn him as such, unless he does nothing but write verses, and wretched ones at that, and is good for nothing else. But the men I have mentioned are not poets by profession."[296] Here the sentiments expressed are those of a refined and social age,--the age of Louis XIV.

no less than that of Leo X.

The irreligious character of neo-cla.s.sic art may also be regarded as one of the consequences of this rationalistic temper. The combined effect of humanism, essentially pagan, and rationalism, essentially sceptical, was not favorable to the growth of religious feeling in literature.

Cla.s.sicism, the result of these two tendencies, became more and more rationalistic, more and more pagan; and in consequence, religious poetry in any real sense ceased to flourish wherever the more stringent forms of cla.s.sicism prevailed. In Boileau these tendencies result in a certain distinct antagonism to the very forms of Christianity in literature:--

"C'est donc bien vainement que nos auteurs decus, Bannissant de leurs vers ces ornemens recus, Pensent faire agir Dieu, ses saints et ses prophetes, Comme ces dieux eclos du cerveau des poetes; Mettent a chaque pas le lecteur en enfer; N'offrent rien qu'Astaroth, Belzebuth, Lucifer.

De la foi d'un chretien les mysteres terribles D'ornemens egayes ne sont point susceptibles; L'evangile a l'esprit n'offre de tous cotes Que penitence a faire et tourmens merites; Et de vos fictions le melange coupable Meme a ses verites donne l'air de la fable."[297]

FOOT-NOTES:

[239] Symonds, ii. 161, based on Voigt.

[240] _Cf._ Woodward, p. 210 _sq._

[241] Hallam, _Lit. of Europe_, i. 8. 1. _Cf._ Pope, i. 182: "Omnia sed numeris voc.u.m concordibus aptant," etc.

[242] Bembo, _Le Prose_, 1525; Dolce, _Osservationi_, 1550, lib. iv.; etc.

[243] _Versi e Regole de la Nuova Poesia Toscana_, 1539.

[244] Trissino, _Poetica_, lib. i.-iv., 1529; Tomitano, _Della Lingua Toscana_, 1545; etc.

[245] Pope, i. 134. _Cf._ De Sanctis, ii. 153 _sq._

[246] Pope, i. 152.

[247] Partenio, p. 80.

[248] _Ibid._ p. 95.

[249] _Opere_, xi. 51.

[250] _Defence_, p. 13.

[251] _Poet._ v. 3.

[252] _Poet._ v. 1; vi. 4.

[253] _Cf._ Brunetiere, p. 53.

[254] Symonds, ii. 395 _sq._

[255] Muzio, p. 94.

[256] _Cf._ Dennis, _Select Works_, 1718, ii. 417 _sq._

[257] Pope, i. 167.

[258] Laas, _Die Paedagogik des Johannes Sturm_, Berlin, 1872, p. 65 _sq._

[259] _Inst. Orat._ x. 2.

[260] Pope, i. 165.

[261] _Poet._ i. 1.

[262] _Poet._ iii. 4.

[263] Partenio, p. 39 _sq._

[264] _Cf._ Brunetiere, p. 102 _sq._, and Lanson, _Hist. de la Litt.

fr._, p. 494 _sq._

[265] _Lettres grecques_, ed. Legrand, 1892, p. 31.

[266] "Quaecunque ab Aristotele dicta sint falsa et comment.i.tia esse;"

Bayle, _Dict._ s. v. Ramus, note C.

[267] Fracastoro, i. 321.

[268] Tiraboschi, vii. 1465.

[269] Maggi, dedication.

[270] In an appendix to this essay will be found an excerpt from Salviati's unpublished commentary on the _Poetics_, giving his judgment of the commentators who had preceded him.